Causes of Campylobacter food poisoning

• Inflammatory
  –Gastroesophageal reflux disease
  –Peptic ulcer disease
  –Pyelonephritis
  –Meningitis
  –Encephalitis
  –Eosinophilic enteropathy
• Central nervous system
  –Brain tumor
  –Trauma
  –Lead encephalopathy
  –Acute intracranial hemorrhage
  –Hydrocephalus
• Metabolic/endocrine
  –Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
  –Hypercalcemia
  –Wolman disease
  –Phenylketonuria

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Source: In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms, 2007

Vomiting: Medical causes
(Handbook of Signs & Symptoms (Third Edition))

Adrenal insufficiency

Common GI findings with the disorder include vomiting, nausea, anorexia, and diarrhea. Other findings include weakness; fatigue; weight loss; bronze skin; orthostatic hypotension; and weak, irregular pulse.

Anthrax (GI)

Initial signs and symptoms after eating contaminated meat from an infected animal include vomiting, loss of appetite, nausea, and fever. Signs and symptoms may progress to abdominal pain, severe bloody diarrhea, and hematemesis.

Appendicitis

Vomiting and nausea may follow or accompany abdominal pain. Pain typically begins as vague epigastric or periumbilical discomfort and rapidly progresses to severe, stabbing pain in the right lower quadrant. The patient generally has a positive McBurney’s sign — severe pain and tenderness on palpation about 2" (5 cm) from the right anterior superior spine of the ilium, on a line between that spine and the umbilicus. Associated findings usually include abdominal rigidity and tenderness, anorexia, constipation or diarrhea, cutaneous hyperalgesia, fever, tachycardia, and malaise.

Cholecystitis (acute)

With cholecystitis, nausea and mild vomiting commonly follow severe right-upper-quadrant pain that may radiate to the back or shoulders. Associated findings include abdominal tenderness and, possibly, rigidity and distention, fever, and diaphoresis.

Cholelithiasis

Nausea and vomiting accompany severe unlocalized right-upper-quadrant or epigastric pain after ingestion of fatty foods. Other findings include abdominal tenderness and guarding, flatulence, belching, epigastric burning, pyrosis, tachycardia, and restlessness.

Cholera

Signs and symptoms include vomiting and abrupt watery diarrhea. Severe water and electrolyte loss leads to thirst, weakness, muscle cramps, decreased skin turgor, oliguria, tachycardia, and hypotension. Without treatment, death can occur within hours.

Cirrhosis

Insidious early signs and symptoms of cirrhosis typically include nausea and vomiting, anorexia, aching abdominal pain, and constipation or diarrhea. Later findings include jaundice, hepatomegaly, and abdominal distention.

Electrolyte imbalances

Such disturbances as hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and hypercalcemia frequently cause nausea and vomiting. Other effects include arrhythmias, tremors, seizures, anorexia, malaise, and weakness.

Escherichia coli (E. coli)

O157:H7. The signs and symptoms of this infection include vomiting, watery or bloody diarrhea, nausea, fever, and abdominal cramps. In children younger than age 5 and the elderly, hemolytic uremic syndrome may develop in which the red blood cells are destroyed, and this may ultimately lead to acute renal failure.

Food poisoning

Vomiting is a common finding of food poisoning, caused by preformed toxins produced by bacteria typically found in foods, such as Bacillus cereus, Clostridium, and Staphylococcus. Diarrhea and fever also usually occur.

Gastric cancer

This rare cancer may produce mild nausea, vomiting (possibly of mucus or blood), anorexia, upper abdominal discomfort, and chronic dyspepsia. Fatigue, weight loss, melena, and altered bowel habits are also common.

Gastritis

Nausea and vomiting of mucus or blood are common with gastritis, especially after ingestion of alcohol, aspirin, spicy foods, or caffeine. Epigastric pain, belching, and fever may occur.

Gastroenteritis

Gastroenteritis causes nausea, vomiting (often of undigested food), diarrhea, and abdominal cramping. Fever, malaise, hyperactive bowel sounds, and abdominal pain and tenderness may also occur.

Heart failure

Nausea and vomiting may occur, especially with right-sided heart failure. Associated findings include tachycardia, ventricular gallop, fatigue, dyspnea, crackles, peripheral edema, and jugular vein distention.

Hepatitis

Vomiting commonly follows nausea as an early sign of viral hepatitis. Other early findings include fatigue, myalgia, arthralgia, headache, photophobia, anorexia, pharyngitis, cough, and fever.

Hyperemesis gravidarum

Unremitting nausea and vomiting that last beyond the first trimester characterize this disorder of pregnancy. Vomitus contains undigested food, mucus, and small amounts of bile early in the disorder; later, it has a coffee-ground appearance. Associated findings include weight loss, headache, and delirium. Thyroid dysfunction may be associated with this condition.

Increased intracranial pressure

Projectile vomiting that isn’t preceded by nausea is a sign of increased intracranial pressure. The patient may exhibit a decreased LOC and Cushing’s triad (bradycardia, hypertension, and respiratory pattern changes). He may also have headache, widened pulse pressure, impaired motor movement, visual disturbances, pupillary changes, and papilledema.

Intestinal obstruction

Nausea and vomiting (bilious or fecal) are common with intestinal obstruction, especially of the upper small intestine. Abdominal pain is usually episodic and colicky but can become severe and steady. Constipation occurs early in large intestinal obstruction and late in small intestinal obstruction. Obstipation, however, may signal complete obstruction. In partial obstruction, bowel sounds are typically high pitched and hyperactive; in complete obstruction, bowel sounds are typically hypoactive or absent. Abdominal distention and tenderness also occur, possibly with visible peristaltic waves and a palpable abdominal mass.

Labyrinthitis

Nausea and vomiting commonly occur with this acute inner ear inflammation. Other findings include severe vertigo, progressive hearing loss, nystagmus, and possibly otorrhea.

Listeriosis

After the ingestion of food contaminated with the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, vomiting, fever, myalgias, abdominal pain, nausea, and diarrhea occur. If the infection spreads to the nervous system, meningitis may develop. Signs and symptoms may include fever, headache, nuchal rigidity, and change in LOC. The food-borne illness primarily affects pregnant women, neonates, and those with weakened immune systems.

Gender Cue:Infections that occur during pregnancy may lead to premature delivery, infection of the neonate, or stillbirth.

Mesenteric venous thrombosis

Insidious or acute onset of nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain occurs here, with diarrhea or constipation, abdominal distention, hematemesis, and melena.

Migraine headache

Nausea and vomiting are prodromal signs and symptoms, with fatigue, photophobia, light flashes, increased noise sensitivity, and possibly partial vision loss and paresthesia.

Motion sickness

Nausea and vomiting may be accompanied by headache, vertigo, dizziness, fatigue, diaphoresis, and dyspnea.

Pancreatitis (acute)

Vomiting, usually preceded by nausea, is an early sign of pancreatitis. Associated findings include steady, severe epigastric or left-upper-quadrant pain that may radiate to the back, abdominal tenderness and rigidity, hypoactive bowel sounds, anorexia, vomiting, and fever. Tachycardia, restlessness, hypotension, skin mottling, and cold, sweaty extremities may occur in severe cases.

Peritonitis

Nausea and vomiting usually accompany acute abdominal pain in the area of inflammation. Other findings include high fever with chills; tachycardia; hypoactive or absent bowel sounds; abdominal distention, rigidity, and tenderness; weakness; pale, cold skin; diaphoresis; hypotension; signs of dehydration; and shallow respirations.

Preeclampsia

Nausea and vomiting are common with preeclampsia, a disorder of pregnancy. Rapid weight gain, epigastric pain, generalized edema, elevated blood pressure, oliguria, severe frontal headache, and blurred or double vision also occur.

Q fever

Signs and symptoms of Q fever, a rickettsial infection, include vomiting, fever, chills, severe headache, malaise, chest pain, nausea, and diarrhea. Fever may last up to 2 weeks. In severe cases, the patient may develop hepatitis or pneumonia.

Renal and urologic disorders

Cystitis, pyelonephritis, calculi, and other disorders of this system can cause vomiting. Accompanying findings reflect the specific disorder. Persistent nausea and vomiting are typical findings in patients with acute or worsening chronic renal failure.

Rhabdomyolysis

Signs and symptoms of this disorder include vomiting, muscle weakness or pain, fever, nausea, malaise, and dark urine. Acute renal failure is the most commonly reported complication of the disorder. It results from renal structure obstruction and injury during the kidney’s attempt to filter the myoglobin from the bloodstream.

Typhus

Typhus is a rickettsial disease transmitted to humans by fleas, mites, or body louse. Initial symptoms include headache, myalgia, arthralgia, and malaise, followed by an abrupt onset of vomiting, nausea, chills, and fever. A maculopapular rash may be present in some cases.

Other causes

Drugs

Drugs that commonly cause vomiting include antineoplastics, opiates, ferrous sulfate, levodopa, oral potassium, chloride replacements, estrogens, sulfasalazine, antibiotics, quinidine, anesthetics, and overdoses of cardiac glycosides and theophylline. Syrup of ipecac is a mixture of ipecac fluid extract, glycerin, and syrup. It’s used to treat overdoses by inducing vomiting.

Radiation and surgery

Radiation therapy may cause nausea and vomiting if it disrupts the gastric mucosa. Postoperative nausea and vomiting are common, especially after abdominal surgery.

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: Handbook of Signs & Symptoms (Third Edition), 2006

Campylobacteriosis: Causes and incidence
(Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

Campylobacteriosis is transmitted by the consumption of contaminated food, such as raw poultry, fresh produce, water, or unpasteurized milk; and through contact with an infected person's stool. Transmission is also possible through contact with infected pets and wild animals. Risk factors include recent family infection with C. jejuni and travel to an area with poor hygiene or sanitation practices.

Campylobacteriosis, which is more common in the summer months, is the most common bacterial cause of diarrheal illness in the United States.

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005

Poisonous snakebites: Causes and incidence
(Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

Of the approximately 45,000 snakebites that occur in the United States each year, 7,000 to 8,000 are from poisonous snakes, resulting in 5 to 6 deaths. Such bites are most common during summer afternoons in grassy or rocky habitats.

Pit vipers are nocturnal but active snakes that are responsible for 99% of venomous snake bites in the United States. Coral snakes are also nocturnal, but their placidity makes coral snake bites less common than pit viper bites. Coral snakes tend to bite with a chewing motion, and may leave multiple fang marks, small lacerations, and extensive tissue destruction.

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005

Vomiting: Medical causes
(Professional Guide to Signs & Symptoms (Fifth Edition))

Adrenal insufficiency

Common GI findings in the disorder include nausea and vomiting, anorexia, and diarrhea. Other findings include weakness, fatigue, weight loss, bronze skin, orthostatic hypotension, and a weak, irregular pulse.

Anthrax, GI

Initial signs and symptoms after ingestion of contaminated meat from an infected animal include nausea and vomiting, anorexia, and fever. Later, abdominal pain, severe bloody diarrhea, and hematemesis may occur.

Appendicitis

Nausea and vomiting may follow or accompany abdominal pain. Pain typically begins as vague epigastric or periumbilical discomfort and rapidly progresses to severe, stabbing pain in the right lower quadrant. The patient generally has a positive McBurney’s sign—severe pain and tenderness at a point two-thirds the distance from the umbilicus to the right anterior superior spine of the ilium. Associated findings usually include abdominal rigidity and tenderness, anorexia, constipation or diarrhea, cutaneous hyperalgesia, fever, tachycardia, and malaise.

Bulimia

Most common in women ages 18 to 29, bulimia is characterized by polyphagia that alternates with self-induced vomiting, fasting, or diarrhea. It’s commonly accompanied by anorexia. The patient typically weighs less than normal but has a morbid fear of obesity. Self-induced vomiting may be evidenced by calloused knuckles and changes in teeth (enamel loss).

Cholecystitis (acute)

With this disorder, nausea and mild vomiting commonly follow severe right-upper-quadrant pain that may radiate to the back or shoulders. Associated findings include abdominal tenderness and, possibly, rigidity and distention, fever, and diaphoresis.

Cholelithiasis

Nausea and vomiting accompany severe unlocalized right-upper-quadrant or epigastric pain after ingestion of fatty foods. Other findings include abdominal tenderness and guarding, flatulence, belching, epigastric burning, pyrosis, tachycardia, and restlessness.

Cholera

Signs and symptoms of cholera include vomiting and abrupt watery diarrhea. Severe water and electrolyte loss leads to thirst, weakness, muscle cramps, decreased skin turgor, oliguria, tachycardia, and hypotension. Without treatment, death can occur within hours.

Cirrhosis

Insidious early signs and symptoms of cirrhosis typically include nausea and vomiting, anorexia, aching abdominal pain, and constipation or diarrhea. Later findings include jaundice, hepatomegaly, and abdominal distention.

Escherichia coli O157:H7

The signs and symptoms of this infection include nausea and vomiting, watery or bloody diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps. Children younger than age 5 and elderly people may develop hemolytic uremic syndrome, which causes red blood cell destruction and may eventually lead to acute renal failure.

Ectopic pregnancy

Nausea, vomiting, vaginal bleeding, and lower abdominal pain occur in this potentially life-threatening disorder.

Electrolyte imbalances

Such disturbances as hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and hypercalcemia commonly cause nausea and vomiting. Other effects include arrhythmias, tremors, seizures, anorexia, malaise, and weakness.

Food poisoning

Vomiting, diarrhea, and fever are common findings in food poisoning, which is caused by ingestion of preformed toxins produced by bacteria typically found in foods, such as Bacillus cereus, Clostridium, and Staphylococcus.

Gastric cancer

This rare type of cancer may produce mild nausea, vomiting (possibly of mucus or blood), anorexia, upper abdominal discomfort, and chronic dyspepsia. Fatigue, weight loss, melena, and altered bowel elimination habits are also common.

Gastritis

Nausea and vomiting of mucus or blood are common in gastritis, especially after ingestion of alcohol, aspirin, spicy foods, or caffeine. Epigastric pain, belching, and fever may also occur.

Gastroenteritis

This disorder causes nausea, vomiting (often of undigested food), diarrhea, and abdominal cramping. Fever, malaise, hyperactive bowel sounds, and abdominal pain and tenderness may also occur.

Heart failure

Nausea and vomiting may occur, especially in right-sided heart failure. Associated findings include tachycardia, ventricular gallop, fatigue, dyspnea, crackles, peripheral edema, and jugular vein distention.

Hepatitis

Vomiting commonly follows nausea as an early sign of viral hepatitis. Other early findings include fatigue, myalgia, arthralgia, headache, photophobia, anorexia, pharyngitis, cough, and fever.

Hyperemesis gravidarum

Unremitting nausea and vomiting that last beyond the first trimester characterize this disorder of pregnancy. Vomitus contains undigested food, mucus, and small amounts of bile early in the disorder; later, it has a coffee-ground appearance. Associated findings include weight loss, headache, delirium and, possibly, thyroid dysfunction.

Increased intracranial pressure

Projectile vomiting that isn’t preceded by nausea is a sign of increased intracranial pressure. The patient may exhibit a decreased level of consciousness (LOC) and Cushing’s triad (bradycardia, hypertension, and respiratory pattern changes). He may also have a headache, widened pulse pressure, impaired movement, visual disturbances, pupillary changes, and papilledema.

Infection

Acute localized or systemic infection may cause vomiting and nausea. Other common findings include fever, headache, malaise, and fatigue.

Intestinal obstruction

Nausea and vomiting (bilious or fecal) are common in this type of obstruction, especially of the upper small intestine. Abdominal pain is usually episodic and colicky but can become severe and steady. Constipation occurs early in large intestinal obstruction and late in small intestinal obstruction. Obstipation, however, may signal complete obstruction. In partial obstruction, bowel sounds are typically high pitched and hyperactive; in complete obstruction, hypoactive or absent. Abdominal distention and tenderness also occur, possibly with visible peristaltic waves and a palpable abdominal mass.

Labyrinthitis

Nausea and vomiting commonly occur in this acute inner ear inflammation. Other findings include severe vertigo, progressive hearing loss, nystagmus and, possibly, otorrhea.

Listeriosis

After ingesting food contaminated with the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, the patient develops nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, fever, and myalgia. If the infection spreads to the nervous system, he may develop meningitis. Signs and symptoms may include fever, headache, nuchal rigidity, and altered LOC. This food-borne illness primarily affects pregnant women, newborns, and those with weakened immune systems.

Gender Cue: Listeriosis that occurs during pregnancy may lead to premature delivery, infection of the neonate, or stillbirth.

Ménière’s disease

This disorder results in sudden, brief, recurrent attacks of nausea and vomiting, dizziness, vertigo, hearing loss, tinnitus, diaphoresis, and nystagmus.

Mesenteric artery ischemia

This life-threatening disorder may cause nausea and vomiting and severe, cramping abdominal pain, especially after meals. Other findings include diarrhea or constipation, abdominal tenderness and bloating, anorexia, weight loss, and abdominal bruits.

Mesenteric venous thrombosis

Insidious or acute onset of nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain occurs along with diarrhea or constipation, abdominal distention, hematemesis, and melena.

Metabolic acidosis

This imbalance may produce nausea, vomiting, anorexia, diarrhea, Kussmaul’s respirations, and decreased LOC.

Migraine headache

Prodromal signs and symptoms of migraine include nausea and vomiting, fatigue, photophobia, light flashes, increased noise sensitivity and, possibly, partial vision loss and paresthesia.

Motion sickness

Nausea and vomiting may be accompanied by headache, vertigo, dizziness, fatigue, diaphoresis, and dyspnea.

Myocardial infarction

Nausea and vomiting may occur, but the cardinal symptom is severe substernal chest pain, which may radiate to the left arm, jaw, or neck. Dyspnea, pallor, clammy skin, diaphoresis, and restlessness also occur.

Norovirus infection

Violent vomiting may occur frequently and without warning in this infection. Children infected with noroviruses tend to experience acute-onset vomiting more often than adults. Additional symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal pain or cramping. There are no drugs or vaccines for noroviruses, but symptomatic therapy may be necessary to replace fluids and correct electrolyte disturbances resulting from frequent vomiting and diarrhea. Young children, elderly people, and those who are otherwise ill are at increased risk for dehydration.

Pancreatitis (acute)

Vomiting, usually preceded by nausea, is an early sign of pancreatitis. Associated findings include steady, severe epigastric or left-upper-quadrant pain that may radiate to the back; abdominal tenderness and rigidity; hypoactive bowel sounds; anorexia; vomiting; and fever. Severe pancreatitis may result in tachycardia, restlessness, hypotension, skin mottling, and cold, sweaty extremities.

Peptic ulcer

Nausea and vomiting may follow sharp, burning or gnawing epigastric pain, especially when the stomach is empty or after ingestion of alcohol, caffeine, or aspirin. Attacks are relieved by eating or taking antacids. Hematemesis or melena may also occur.

Peritonitis

Nausea and vomiting usually accompany acute abdominal pain in the area of inflammation. Other findings include high fever with chills; tachycardia; hypoactive or absent bowel sounds; abdominal distention, rigidity, and tenderness; weakness; pale, cold skin; diaphoresis; hypotension; signs of dehydration; and shallow respirations.

Preeclampsia

Nausea and vomiting are common in this disorder of pregnancy. Rapid weight gain, epigastric pain, generalized edema, elevated blood pressure, oliguria, a severe frontal headache, and blurred or double vision also occur.

Q fever

Signs and symptoms of this rickettsial infection include nausea and vomiting, fever, chills, severe headache, malaise, chest pain, and diarrhea. Fever may last up to 2 weeks. In severe cases, the patient may develop hepatitis or pneumonia.

Renal and urologic disorders

Cystitis, pyelonephritis, calculi, and other renal and urologic disorders can cause vomiting. Accompanying findings reflect the specific disorder. Persistent nausea and vomiting are typical findings in patients with acute or worsening chronic renal failure.

Rhabdomyolysis

Signs and symptoms of this disorder include nausea and vomiting, muscle weakness or pain, fever, malaise, and dark urine. Acute renal failure, the most commonly reported complication of rhabdomyolysis, results from renal structure obstruction and injury during the kidneys’attempt to filter the myoglobin from the bloodstream.

Thyrotoxicosis

Nausea and vomiting may accompany the classic findings of severe anxiety, heat intolerance, weight loss despite increased appetite, diaphoresis, diarrhea, tremors, tachycardia, and palpitations. Other findings include exophthalmos, ventricular or atrial gallop, and an enlarged thyroid gland.

Typhus

Typhus is a rickettsial disease transmitted to humans by fleas, mites, or body louse. Initial symptoms include headache, myalgia, arthralgia, and malaise, followed by an abrupt onset of nausea, vomiting, chills, and fever. A maculopapular rash may be present in some cases.

Ulcerative colitis

Nausea, vomiting, and anorexia may occur, but the most common sign is recurrent diarrhea with blood, pus, and mucus. Fever, chills, and weight loss are other common signs and symptoms.

Other causes

Drugs

Drugs that commonly cause vomiting include antineoplastics, opiates, ferrous sulfate, levodopa, oral potassium, chloride replacements, estrogens, sulfasalazine, antibiotics, quinidine, anesthetics, and overdoses of cardiac glycosides and theophylline. Syrup of ipecac, a mixture of ipecac fluid extract, glycerin, and syrup, is used to treat drug overdoses by inducing vomiting.

Radiation and surgery

Radiation therapy may cause nausea and vomiting if it disrupts the gastric mucosa. Postoperative nausea and vomiting are common, especially after abdominal surgery.

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: Professional Guide to Signs & Symptoms (Fifth Edition), 2006

Nausea/Vomiting: Differential Overview
(Field Guide to Bedside Diagnosis)

Presenting Symptom

❑ Gastroesophageal reflux

❑ Pregnancy

❑ Psychogenic

❑ Bulimia

❑ Rumination

❑ Diabetic ketoacidosis

❑ Hepatitis

❑ Inferior myocardial infarction

❑ Uremia

❑ Adrenal insufficiency

With Abdominal Pain

❑ Viral gastroenteritis

❑ Food poisoning

❑ Peptic ulcer disease

❑ Renal colic

❑ Pancreatitis

❑ Pyelonephritis

❑ Appendicitis

❑ Cholecystitis

❑ Small bowel obstruction

❑ Peritonitis

With Neurologic Signs

❑ Migraine headache

❑ Vestibular disturbance

❑ Autonomic dysfunction

❑ Increased intracranial pressure

❑ Hypercalcemia

❑ Cerebellar hemorrhage

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Source: Field Guide to Bedside Diagnosis, 2007

Snakebites, poisonous: Causes
(Handbook of Diseases)

The only poisonous snakes in the United States are pit vipers (Crotalidae) and coral snakes (Elapidae). Pit vipers include rattlesnakes, water moccasins (cottonmouths), and copperheads. They have a pitted depression between their eyes and nostrils and two fangs, ¾" to 1¼"nbsp;(2 to 3 cm) long. Because fangs may break off or grow behind old ones, some snakes may have one, three, or four fangs.

Because coral snakes are nocturnal and placid, their bites are less common than pit viper bites; pit vipers are also nocturnal but are more active. The fangs of coral snakes are short but have teeth behind them. Coral snakes have distinctive red, black, and yellow bands (yellow bands always border red ones), tend to bite with a chewing motion, and may leave multiple fang marks, small lacerations, and much tissue destruction.

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: Handbook of Diseases, 2003

Vomiting: Medical causes
(Alarming Signs and Symptoms: Lippincott Manual of Nursing Practice Series)

Adrenal insufficiency

Common GI findings with adrenal insufficiency include vomiting, nausea, anorexia, and diarrhea. Other findings include weakness, fatigue, weight loss, bronze skin, orthostatic hypotension, and a weak, irregular pulse.

Anthrax (GI)

Initial signs and symptoms after eating contaminated meat from an infected animal include vomiting, loss of appetite, nausea, and fever. Signs and symptoms may progress to abdominal pain, severe bloody diarrhea, and hematemesis.

Appendicitis

Bulimia

Cholecystitis (acute)

With acute cholecystitis, nausea and mild vomiting commonly follow severe right upper quadrant pain that may radiate to the back or shoulders. Associated findings include abdominal tenderness and, possibly, rigidity and distention, fever, and diaphoresis.

Cholelithiasis

Nausea and vomiting accompany severe unlocalized right upper quadrant or epigastric pain after eating fatty foods. Other findings include abdominal tenderness and guarding, flatulence, belching, epigastric burning, pyrosis, tachycardia, and restlessness.

Cholera

Signs and symptoms include vomiting and abrupt watery diarrhea. Severe water and electrolyte loss leads to thirst, weakness, muscle cramps, decreased skin turgor, oliguria, tachycardia, and hypotension. Without treatment, death can occur within hours.

Cirrhosis

Insidious early signs and symptoms of cirrhosis typically include nausea and vomiting, anorexia, aching abdominal pain, and constipation or diarrhea. Later findings include jaundice, hepatomegaly, and abdominal distention. O157:H7. The signs and symptoms of E. coli O157:H7 infection include vomiting, watery or bloody diarrhea, nausea, fever, and abdominal cramps. In children younger than age 5 and in elderly people, hemolytic uremic syndrome may develop in which the red blood cells are destroyed, and this may ultimately lead to acute renal failure.

Ectopic pregnancy

Vomiting, nausea, vaginal bleeding, and lower abdominal pain occur in ectopic pregnancy, a potentially life-threatening disorder.

Electrolyte imbalances

Such disturbances as hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and hypercalcemia commonly cause nausea and vomiting. Other effects include arrhythmias, tremors, seizures, anorexia, malaise, and weakness.

Food poisoning

Gastric cancer

This rare cancer may produce mild nausea, vomiting (possibly of mucus or blood), anorexia, upper abdominal discomfort, and chronic dyspepsia. Fatigue, weight loss, melena, and altered bowel habits are also common.

Gastritis

Nausea and vomiting of mucus or blood are common with gastritis, especially after ingestion of alcohol, aspirin, spicy foods, or caffeine. Epigastric pain, belching, and fever may also occur.

Gastroenteritis

Gastroenteritis causes nausea, vomiting (commonly of undigested food), diarrhea, and abdominal cramping. Fever, malaise, hyperactive bowel sounds, and abdominal pain and tenderness may also occur.

Heart failure

Nausea and vomiting may occur, especially with right-sided heart failure. Associated findings include tachycardia, ventricular gallop, fatigue, dyspnea, crackles, peripheral edema, and jugular vein distention.

Hepatitis

Vomiting commonly follows nausea as an early sign of viral hepatitis. Other early findings include fatigue, myalgia, arthralgia, headache, photophobia, anorexia, pharyngitis, cough, and fever.

Hyperemesis gravidarum

Unremitting nausea and vomiting that last beyond the first trimester characterize hyperemesis gravidarum, a disorder of pregnancy. Vomitus contains undigested food, mucus, and small amounts of bile early in the disorder; later, it has a coffee-ground appearance. Associated findings include weight loss, headache, and delirium. Thyroid dysfunction may be associated with this condition.

Increased ICP

Projectile vomiting that isn’t preceded by nausea is a sign of increased ICP. The patient may exhibit a decreased level of consciousness (LOC) and Cushing’s triad (bradycardia, hypertension, and respiratory pattern changes. He may also have headache, widened pulse pressure, impaired motor movement, vision disturbances, pupillary changes, and papilledema.

Infection

Acute localized or systemic infection may cause vomiting and nausea. Other common findings include fever, headache, malaise, and fatigue.

Intestinal obstruction

Nausea and vomiting (bilious or fecal) are common with intestinal obstruction, especially of the upper small intestine. Abdominal pain is usually episodic and colicky but can become severe and steady. Constipation occurs early in large intestinal obstruction and late in small intestinal obstruction. Obstipation, however, may signal complete obstruction. In partial obstruction, bowel sounds are typically high pitched and hyperactive; in complete obstruction, hypoactive or absent. Abdominal distention and tenderness also occur, possibly with visible peristaltic waves and a palpable abdominal mass.

Labyrinthitis

Nausea and vomiting commonly occur with labyrinthitis, an acute inner ear inflammation. Other findings include severe vertigo, progressive hearing loss, nystagmus and, possibly, otorrhea.

Listeriosis

Ménière’s disease

Ménière’s disease causes sudden, brief, recurrent attacks of nausea and vomiting, dizziness, vertigo, hearing loss, tinnitus, diaphoresis, and nystagmus.

Mesenteric artery ischemia

A life-threatening disorder, mesenteric artery ischemia may cause nausea and vomiting and severe, cramping abdominal pain, especially after meals. Other findings include diarrhea or constipation, abdominal tenderness and bloating, anorexia, weight loss, and abdominal bruits.

Mesenteric venous thrombosis

An insidious or an acute onset of nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain occur with mesenteric venous thrombosis and may be accompanied by diarrhea or constipation, abdominal distention, hematemesis, and melena.

Metabolic acidosis

Metabolic acidosis is an imbalance that may produce nausea, vomiting, anorexia, diarrhea, Kussmaul’s respirations, and a decreased LOC.

Migraine headache

Nausea and vomiting are prodromal signs and symptoms, with fatigue, photophobia, light flashes, increased noise sensitivity and, possibly, partial vision loss and paresthesia.

Motion sickness

Nausea and vomiting may be accompanied by headache, vertigo, dizziness, fatigue, diaphoresis, and dyspnea.

Myocardial infarction

Nausea and vomiting may occur, but the cardinal symptom is severe substernal chest pain, which may radiate to the left arm, jaw, or neck. Dyspnea, pallor, clammy skin, diaphoresis, and restlessness also occur.

Pancreatitis (acute)

Vomiting, usually preceded by nausea, is an early sign of pancreatitis. Associated findings include steady, severe epigastric or left upper quadrant pain that may radiate to the back, abdominal tenderness and rigidity, hypoactive bowel sounds, anorexia, vomiting, and fever. Tachycardia, restlessness, hypotension, skin mottling, and cold, sweaty extremities may occur in severe cases.

Peptic ulcer

Nausea and vomiting may follow sharp, burning or gnawing epigastric pain, especially when the stomach is empty or after the ingestion of alcohol, caffeine, or aspirin. Attacks are relieved by eating or taking antacids. Hematemesis or melena may also occur.

Peritonitis

Nausea and vomiting usually accompany acute abdominal pain in the area of inflammation. Other findings include abdominal distention, rigidity, and tenderness as well as high fever with chills, tachycardia, hypoactive or absent bowel sounds, weakness, and pale, cold skin. The patient may also experience diaphoresis, hypotension, signs of dehydration, and shallow respirations.

Preeclampsia

Nausea and vomiting are common with preeclampsia, a disorder of pregnancy. Rapid weight gain, epigastric pain, generalized edema, elevated blood pressure, oliguria, severe frontal headache, and blurred or double vision also occur.

Q fever

Signs and symptoms of Q fever, a rickettsial infection, include vomiting, fever, chills, severe headache, malaise, chest pain, nausea, and diarrhea. Fever may last up to 2 weeks. In severe cases, the patient may develop hepatitis or pneumonia.

Renal and urologic disorders

Cystitis, pyelonephritis, calculi, and other disorders of this system can cause vomiting. Accompanying findings reflect the specific disorder. Persistent nausea and vomiting are typical findings in patients with acute or worsening chronic renal failure.

Rhabdomyolysis

Signs and symptoms of rhabdomyolisis include vomiting, muscle weakness or pain, fever, nausea, malaise, and dark urine. Acute renal failure is the most commonly reported complication. It results from renal structure obstruction and injury during the kidney’s attempt to filter myoglobin from the bloodstream.

Thyrotoxicosis

Nausea and vomiting may accompany the classic findings of severe anxiety, heat intolerance, weight loss despite increased appetite, diaphoresis, diarrhea, tremors, tachycardia, and palpitations. Other findings include exophthalmos, ventricular or atrial gallop, and an enlarged thyroid gland.

Typhus

Typhus is a rickettsial disease transmitted to humans by fleas, mites, or body lice. Initial symptoms include headache, myalgia, arthralgia, and malaise, followed by an abrupt onset of vomiting, nausea, chills, and fever. A maculopapular rash may be present in some cases.

Ulcerative colitis

Vomiting, nausea, and anorexia may occur, but the most common sign is recurrent diarrhea with blood, pus, and mucus. Fever, chills, and weight loss are also common.

Other causes

Drugs

Drugs that commonly cause vomiting include antineoplastics, opiates, ferrous sulfate, levodopa, oral potassium, chloride replacements, estrogens, sulfasalazine, antibiotics, quinidine, anesthetics, and overdoses of cardiac glycosides and theophylline. Syrup of ipecac, a mixture of ipecac fluid extract, glycerin, and syrup, is used to treat overdoses by inducing vomiting.

Radiation and surgery

Radiation therapy may cause nausea and vomiting if it disrupts the gastric mucosa. Postoperative nausea and vomiting are common, especially after abdominal surgery.

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: Alarming Signs and Symptoms: Lippincott Manual of Nursing Practice Series, 2007

Vomiting: Medical causes
(Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses)

Adrenal insufficiency

Common GI findings associated with adrenal insufficiency include vomiting, nausea, anorexia, and diarrhea. Other findings include weakness; fatigue; weight loss; bronze skin; orthostatic hypotension; and weak, irregular pulse.

Anthrax (GI)

With anthrax, initial signs and symptoms after eating contaminated meat from an infected animal include vomiting, loss of appetite, nausea, and fever. Signs and symptoms may progress to abdominal pain, severe bloody diarrhea, and hematemesis.

Appendicitis

With appendicitis, vomiting and nausea may follow or accompany abdominal pain. Pain typically begins as vague epigastric or periumbilical discomfort and rapidly progresses to severe, stabbing pain in the right lower quadrant. The patient generally has a positive McBurney’s sign — severe pain and tenderness on palpation about 2"(5 cm) from the right anterior superior spine of the ilium, on a line between that spine and the umbilicus. Associated findings usually include abdominal rigidity and tenderness, anorexia, constipation or diarrhea, cutaneous hyperalgesia, fever, tachycardia, and malaise.

Bulimia

Most common in women ages 18 to 29, bulimia is characterized by polyphagia that alternates with self-induced vomiting, fasting, or diarrhea. It’s commonly accompanied by anorexia. The patient typically weighs less than normal but has a morbid fear of obesity. Self-induced vomiting may be evidenced by calloused knuckles.

Cholecystitis (acute)

With acute cholecystitis, nausea and mild vomiting commonly follow severe right-upper-quadrant pain that may radiate to the back or shoulders. Associated findings include abdominal tenderness and, possibly, rigidity and distention, fever, and diaphoresis.

Cholelithiasis

Nausea and vomiting accompany severe unlocalized right-upper-quadrant or epigastric pain after ingestion of fatty foods. Other findings in cholelithiasis include abdominal tenderness and guarding, flatulence, belching, epigastric burning, pyrosis, tachycardia, and restlessness.

Cirrhosis

Insidious early signs and symptoms of cirrhosis typically include nausea and vomiting, anorexia, aching abdominal pain, and constipation or diarrhea. Later findings include jaundice, hepatomegaly, and abdominal distention.

Escherichia coli 0157:H7

The signs and symptoms of E. coli include vomiting, watery or bloody diarrhea, nausea, fever, and abdominal cramps. In children younger than age 5 and elderly patients, hemolytic uremic syndrome may develop in which the red blood cells are destroyed, and this may ultimately lead to acute renal failure.

Ectopic pregnancy

Vomiting, nausea, vaginal bleeding, and lower abdominal pain occur in ectopic pregnancy, a potentially life-threatening disorder. The patient with an ectopic pregnancy may have a tender adrenal mass and a 1- to -2-month history of amenorrhea.

Electrolyte imbalances

Electrolyte imbalances such as hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and hypercalcemia frequently cause nausea and vomiting. Other effects include arrhythmias, tremors, seizures, anorexia, malaise, and weakness.

Food poisoning

Vomiting is a common finding in food poisoning. Diarrhea, severe, cramping abdominal pain, prostration, and fever also usually occur.

Gastritis

Nausea and vomiting of mucus or blood are common with gastritis, especially after ingestion of alcohol, aspirin, spicy foods, or caffeine. Epigastric pain, belching, and fever may occur.

Gastroenteritis

Gastroenteritis causes nausea, vomiting (often of undigested food), diarrhea, and abdominal cramping. Fever, malaise, hyperactive bowel sounds, and abdominal pain and tenderness may also occur.

Heart failure

Nausea and vomiting may occur, especially with right-sided heart failure. Associated findings include tachycardia, ventricular gallop, fatigue, dyspnea, crackles, peripheral edema, and jugular vein distention.

Hepatitis

Vomiting commonly follows nausea as an early sign of viral hepatitis. Other early findings include fatigue, myalgia, arthralgia, headache, photophobia, anorexia, pharyngitis, cough, and fever.

Hyperemesis gravidarum

Unremitting nausea and vomiting that last beyond the first trimester characterize hyperemesis gravidarum, a disorder of pregnancy. Vomitus contains undigested food, mucus, and small amounts of bile early in the disorder; later, it has a coffee-ground appearance. Associated findings include weight loss, headache, and delirium.

Increased intracranial pressure

Projectile vomiting that isn’t preceded by nausea is a sign of increased ICP. The patient may exhibit a decreased level of consciousness (LOC) and Cushing’s triad (bradycardia, hypertension, and respiratory pattern changes). He may also have headache, widened pulse pressure, impaired motor movement, vision disturbances, pupillary changes, and papilledema.

Intestinal obstruction

Nausea and vomiting (bilious or fecal) are common with intestinal obstruction, especially of the upper small intestine. Abdominal pain is usually episodic and colicky but can become severe and steady. Constipation occurs early in large intestinal obstruction and late in small intestinal obstruction. Obstipation, however, may signal complete obstruction. In partial obstruction bowel sounds are typically high pitched and hyperactive; in complete obstruction, hypoactive or absent. Abdominal distention and tenderness also occur, possibly with visible peristaltic waves and a palpable abdominal mass.

Labyrinthitis

Nausea and vomiting commonly occur with labyrinthitis, an acute inner ear inflammation. Other findings in labyrinthitis include severe vertigo, progressive hearing loss, nystagmus, and possibly otorrhea.

Ménière’s disease

Ménière’s disease causes sudden, brief, recurrent attacks of nausea and vomiting, dizziness, vertigo, hearing loss, tinnitus, diaphoresis, and nystagmus. Hearing loss may be progressive and tinnitus may persist between attacks.

Mesenteric artery ischemia

Mesenteric artery ischemia is a life-threatening disorder that may cause nausea and vomiting and severe, cramping abdominal pain, especially after meals. Other findings include diarrhea or constipation, abdominal tenderness and bloating, anorexia, weight loss, and abdominal bruits.

Mesenteric venous thrombosis

With mesenteric venous thrombosis, insidious or acute onset of nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain occurs along with diarrhea or constipation, abdominal distention, hematemesis, and melena.

Metabolic acidosis

Metabolic acidosis may produce nausea, vomiting, anorexia, diarrhea, Kussmaul’s respirations, and decreased LOC.

Migraine headache

Nausea and vomiting are prodromal signs and symptoms of a migraine headache. Fatigue, photophobia, light flashes, increased noise sensitivity, and possibly partial vision loss and paresthesia also occur.

Motion sickness

Rhythmic or erratic motion causes nausea and vomiting that may be accompanied by headache, vertigo, dizziness, fatigue, diaphoresis, and dyspnea.

Myocardial infarction

Nausea and vomiting may occur, but the cardinal symptom of myocardial infarction is severe substernal chest pain, which may radiate to the left arm, jaw, or neck. Dyspnea, pallor, clammy skin, diaphoresis, and restlessness also occur.

Pancreatitis (acute)

Vomiting, usually preceded by nausea, is an early sign of pancreatitis. Associated findings include steady, severe epigastric or left-upper-quadrant pain that may radiate to the back, abdominal tenderness and rigidity, hypoactive bowel sounds, anorexia, vomiting, and fever. Tachycardia, restlessness, hypotension, skin mottling, and cold, sweaty extremities may occur in severe cases.

Peptic ulcer

Nausea and vomiting may follow sharp, burning or gnawing epigastric pain, especially when the stomach is empty or after ingestion of alcohol, caffeine, or aspirin. Attacks are relieved by eating or taking antacids. Hematemesis or melena may also occur.

Peritonitis

With peritonitis, nausea and vomiting usually accompany acute abdominal pain in the area of inflammation. Other findings include high fever with chills; tachycardia; hypoactive or absent bowel sounds; abdominal distention, rigidity, and tenderness; weakness; pale, cold skin; diaphoresis; hypotension; signs of dehydration; and shallow respirations.

Preeclampsia

Nausea and vomiting are common with preeclampsia, a disorder of pregnancy. Rapid weight gain, epigastric pain, generalized edema, elevated blood pressure, oliguria, severe frontal headache, and blurred or double vision also occur.

Renal and urologic disorders

Cystitis, pyelonephritis, calculi, and other renal and urologic disorders can cause vomiting. Accompanying findings reflect the specific disorder. Persistent nausea and vomiting are typical findings in patients with acute or worsening chronic renal failure.

Thyrotoxicosis

With thyrotoxicosis, nausea and vomiting may accompany the classic findings of severe anxiety, heat intolerance, weight loss despite increased appetite, diaphoresis, diarrhea, tremors, tachycardia, and palpitations. Other findings include exophthalmos, ventricular or atrial gallop, and an enlarged thyroid gland.

Ulcerative colitis

Vomiting, nausea, and anorexia may occur, but the most common sign of ulcerative colitis is recurrent diarrhea with blood, pus, and mucus. Fever, chills, and weight loss are other common signs and symptoms.

Other causes

Drugs

Drugs that commonly cause vomiting include antineoplastics, opiates, ferrous sulfate, levodopa, oral potassium, chloride replacements, estrogens, sulfasalazine, antibiotics, quinidine, anesthetics, and overdoses of cardiac glycosides and theophylline. Syrup of ipecac is used to treat overdoses by inducing vomiting.

Radiation and surgery

Radiation therapy may cause nausea and vomiting if it disrupts the gastric mucosa. Postoperative nausea and vomiting are common, especially after abdominal surgery.

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses, 2007

Regurgitation and Vomiting: Principal Causes of Regurgitation
(The Diagnostic Approach to Symptoms and Signs in Pediatrics)

1. Normalvariations
2. Gastroesophageal reflux
3. Esophageal disorders
   1. Congenitalanomalies
      1. Esophagealatresia with or without tracheoesophageal fistula
      2. Esophageal stenosis
      3. Esophageal web
      4. Duplication
   2. Foreign body
   3. Stricture
4. Hiatal hernia
5. Rumination

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: The Diagnostic Approach to Symptoms and Signs in Pediatrics, 2006

Vomiting: Medical causes
(Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms)

Adrenal insufficiency.Common GI findings with adrenal insufficiency include vomiting, nausea, anorexia, and diarrhea. Other findings include weakness; fatigue; weight loss; bronze skin; orthostatic hypotension; and weak, irregular pulse.

Anthrax (GI).Initial signs and symptoms after eating contaminated meat from an animal infected with anthrax include vomiting, loss of appetite, nausea, and fever. Signs and symptoms may progress to abdominal pain, severe bloody diarrhea, and hematemesis.

Appendicitis.Vomiting and nausea may follow or accompany abdominal pain from appendicitis. Pain typically begins as vague epigastric or periumbilical discomfort and rapidly progresses to severe, stabbing pain in the right lower quadrant. The patient generally has a positive McBurney's sign—severe pain and tenderness on palpation about 29 (5 cm) from the right anterior superior spine of the ilium, on a line between that spine and the umbilicus. Associated findings usually include abdominal rigidity and tenderness, anorexia, constipation or diarrhea, cutaneous hyperalgesia, fever, tachycardia, and malaise.

Cholecystitis (acute).With cholecystitis, nausea and mild vomiting commonly follow severe right-upper-quadrant pain that may radiate to the back or shoulders. Associated findings include abdominal tenderness and, possibly, rigidity and distention, fever, and diaphoresis.

Cholelithiasis.With cholelithiasis, nauseaand vomiting accompany severe, unlocalized right-upper-quadrant or epigastric pain after ingestion of fatty foods. Other findings include abdominal tenderness and guarding, flatulence, belching, epigastric burning, pyrosis, tachycardia, and restlessness.

Cholera.Signs and symptoms of cholera include vomiting and abrupt watery diarrhea. Severe water and electrolyte loss leads to thirst, weakness, muscle cramps, decreased skin turgor, oliguria, tachycardia, and hypotension. Without treatment, death can occur within hours.

Cirrhosis.Insidious early signs and symptoms of cirrhosis typically include nausea and vomiting, anorexia, aching abdominal pain, and constipation or diarrhea. Later findings include jaundice, hepatomegaly, and abdominal distention.

Electrolyte imbalances.Such electrolyte disturbances as hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hypokalemia, and hypercalcemia frequently cause nausea and vomiting. Other effects include arrhythmias, tremors, seizures, anorexia, malaise, and weakness.

Escherichia coli O157:H7. The signs and symptoms of E.coli include vomiting, watery or bloody diarrhea, nausea, fever, and abdominal cramps. In children younger than age 5 and the elderly, hemolytic uremic syndrome may develop in which the red blood cells are destroyed, which may ultimately lead to acute renal failure.

Food poisoning.Vomiting is a common finding of food poisoning, caused by preformed toxins produced by bacteria typically found in foods, such as Bacillus cereus, Clostridium, and Staphylococcus. Diarrhea and fever also usually occur.

Gastric cancer.This rare cancer may produce mild nausea, vomiting (possibly of mucus or blood), anorexia, upper abdominal discomfort, and chronic dyspepsia. Fatigue, weight loss, melena, and altered bowel habits are also common.

Gastritis.Nausea and vomiting of mucus or blood are common with gastritis, especially after ingestion of alcohol, aspirin, spicy foods, or caffeine. Epigastric pain, belching, and fever may occur.

Gastroenteritis.Gastroenteritis causes nausea, vomiting (commonly of undigested food), diarrhea, and abdominal cramping. Fever, malaise, hyperactive bowel sounds, and abdominal pain and tenderness may also occur.

Heart failure.Nausea and vomiting may occur heart failure, especially with right-sided heart failure. Associated findings include tachycardia, ventricular gallop, fatigue, dyspnea, crackles, peripheral edema, and jugular vein distention.

Hepatitis.Vomiting commonly follows nausea as an early sign of viral hepatitis. Other early findings include fatigue, myalgia, arthralgia, headache, photophobia, anorexia, pharyngitis, cough, and fever.

Hyperemesis gravidarum.Unremitting nausea and vomiting that last beyond the first trimester characterize this disorder of pregnancy. Vomitus contains undigested food, mucus, and small amounts of bile early in the disorder; later, it has a coffee-ground appearance. Associated findings include weight loss, headache, delirium, and electrolyte imbalance. Thyroid dysfunction may be associated with this condition.

Increased intracranial pressure.Projectile vomiting that isn't preceded by nausea is a sign of increased intracranial pressure. The patient may exhibit a decreased level of consciousness (LOC) and Cushing's triad (bradycardia, hypertension, and respiratory pattern changes). He may also have headache, widened pulse pressure, impaired motor movement, vision disturbances, pupillary changes, and papilledema.

Intestinal obstruction.Nausea and vomiting (bilious or fecal) are common with intestinal obstruction, especially of the upper small intestine. Abdominal pain is usually episodic and colicky but can become severe and steady. Constipation occurs early in large intestinal obstruction and late in small intestinal obstruction. Obstipation, however, may signal complete obstruction. In partial obstruction, bowel sounds are typically high pitched and hyperactive; in complete obstruction, bowel sounds are typically hypoactive or absent. Abdominal distention and tenderness also occur, possibly with visible peristaltic waves and a palpable abdominal mass.

Labyrinthitis.Nauseaand vomiting commonly occur with labyrinthitis. Other findings include severe vertigo, progressive hearing loss, nystagmus, and possibly otorrhea.

Listeriosis.After the ingestion offood contaminated with the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, vomiting, fever, myalgias, abdominal pain, nausea, and diarrhea occur. If the infection spreads to the nervous system, meningitis may develop. Signs and symptoms may include fever, headache, nuchal rigidity, and change in LOC. The food-borne illness primarily affects pregnant women, neonates, and those with weakened immune systems.

Mesenteric venous thrombosis.Insidious or acute onset of nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain occurs with mesenteric venous thrombosis. Other findings include diarrhea or constipation, abdominal distention, hematemesis, and melena.

Migraine headache.Nausea and vomiting are prodromal signs of a migraine headache, along with such accompanying symptoms as fatigue, photophobia, light flashes, increased noise sensitivity, and possibly partial vision loss and paresthesia.

Motion sickness.With motion sickness, nausea and vomiting may be accompanied by headache, vertigo, dizziness, fatigue, diaphoresis, and dyspnea.

Norovirus infection.Violent vomiting may occur frequently and without warning with norovirus infection. Additional symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal pain or cramping.

Pancreatitis (acute).Vomiting, usually preceded by nausea, is an early sign of pancreatitis. Associated findings include steady, severe epigastric or left-upper-quadrant pain that may radiate to the back, abdominal tenderness and rigidity, anorexia, hypoactive bowel sounds, vomiting, and fever. Tachycardia, restlessness, hypotension, skin mottling, and cold, sweaty extremities may occur in severe cases.

Peritonitis.With peritonitis, nausea and vomiting usually accompany acute abdominal pain in the area of inflammation. Other findings include high fever with chills; tachycardia; hypoactive or absent bowel sounds; abdominal distention, rigidity, and tenderness; weakness; pale, cold skin; diaphoresis; hypotension; signs of dehydration; and shallow respirations.

Preeclampsia.Nausea and vomiting are common with preeclampsia. Rapid weight gain, epigastric pain, generalized edema, elevated blood pressure, oliguria, proteinuria, severe frontal headache, and blurred or double vision also occur.

Q fever.Signs and symptoms of Q fever include vomiting, fever, chills, severe headache, malaise, chest pain, nausea, and diarrhea. Fever may last up to 2 weeks. In severe cases, the patient may develop hepatitis or pneumonia.

Renal and urologic disorders.Cystitis, pyelonephritis, calculi, and other disorders of this system can cause vomiting. Accompanying findings reflect the specific disorder. Persistent nausea and vomiting are typical findings in patients with acute or worsening chronic renal failure.

Rhabdomyolysis.Signs and symptoms of rhabdomyolisis include vomiting, muscle weakness or pain, fever, nausea, malaise, and dark urine. Acute renal failure is the most commonly reported complication of the disorder. It results from renal structure obstruction and injury during the kidney's attempt to filter the myoglobin from the bloodstream.

Typhus.Initial symptoms of typhus include headache, myalgia, arthralgia, and malaise, followed by an abrupt onset of vomiting, nausea, chills, and fever. A maculopapular rash may be present in some cases.

Other causes

Drugs.Drugs that commonly cause vomiting include antineoplastics, opiates, ferrous sulfate, levodopa, oral potassium, chloride replacements, estrogens, sulfasalazine, antibiotics, quinidine, anesthetics, and overdoses of cardiac glycosides and theophylline. Syrup of ipecac is used to treat overdoses by inducing vomiting.

Radiation and surgery.Radiation therapy may cause nausea and vomiting if it disrupts the gastric mucosa. Postoperative nausea and vomiting are common, especially after abdominal surgery.

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms, 2007

Campylobacter Infections: Campylobacter Infections - pathophysiology
(The 5-Minute Pediatric Consult)

• C. jejuni adheres to epithelial cells and mucus, secretes cytotoxins (which play a role in the development of watery diarrhea), and induces an inflammatory ileocolitis.
• Enteritis, the best-known disease of C. jejuni, has been isolated more often than Salmonella or Shigella, with an incidence of 4–12% of diarrheal illness.
• Bacteremia, although uncommon, can occur, especially in the neonate and immunocompromised host; C. fetus is the species most likely to be isolated.
• C. upsaliensis has been identified in immunocompromised individuals and is usually associated with a self-limiting enteritis.

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: The 5-Minute Pediatric Consult, 2008

Food Poisoning or Foodborne Illness: Food Poisoning or Foodborne Illness - pathophysiology
(The 5-Minute Pediatric Consult)

• Bacteria (often causes secretory diarrhea):
  • Invades intestinal epithelium
  • Elaborates toxin into the GI tract
  • Elaborates toxin into food (performed toxin is ingested)
• Virus (often causes osmotic diarrhea): Invasion of subsequent lysis of intestinal epithelial cells, leaving predominantly immature cells with inadequate disaccharidase activity

Food Poisoning or Foodborne Illness - etiology

• Bacteria and/or associated toxins. Most common (in descending order):
  • Salmonella (nontyphoid)
  • Clostridium perfringens
  • Escherichia coli
  • Staphylococcus aureus
  • Campylobacter
• Viruses including calciviruses (noro and astro)
• Parasites

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: The 5-Minute Pediatric Consult, 2008

Sympathomimetic Poisoning: Sympathomimetic Poisoning - risk factors
(The 5-Minute Pediatric Consult)

Prescription sympathomimetics, such as methylphenidate, pose some risk factor for both the recipient of the prescription as well as siblings.

Adolescents are at increased risk for using drugs of abuse.

Sympathomimetic Poisoning - pathophysiology

• Relevant pathophysiology is based on the adrenergic receptor type stimulated by the drug in question. The adrenergic receptors of relevance include alpha 1, beta 1, and beta 2 receptors.
• Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine stimulate both alpha and beta receptors:
  • Excessive cardiovascular stimulation results in symptoms qualitatively similar to those that occur with catecholamines.
  • Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine have weaker penetration of the CNS relative to drugs of abuse.
  • As a result, users may suffer from systemic
  • complications of the relatively larger doses necessary to achieve the CNS “high” of other stimulants.
• Non-elective beta adrenergic agonists
• Isoproterenol, rarely used, is the prototypical nonselective beta agonist causing the following:
  • Tachycardia, hypotension, tachydysrhythmias, myocardial ischemia and flushing due to its cardiostimulatory and vasodilatory properties
  • Commonly CNS effects of anxiety, fear, and headache occur.
• Selective beta 2 adrenergic agonists are commonly used, and these include albuterol, levalbuterol, salmeterol, terbutaline, and others.
• Common adverse effects include:
  • Tachycardia, palpitations, and tremor
  • Hypotension, often with widened pulse pressure
  • Nausea, vomiting, and sometimes diarrhea
  • Hyperglycemia and hypokalemia
  • Elevation of CPK as well as troponin, though myocardial infarction is never expected to occur in otherwise healthy children with selective beta 2 agonist exposure
  • Anxiety, fear, and headache also may occur.
• Alpha 1 selective agonists include phenylephrine and phenylpropanolamine, though the latter is no longer commercially produced in any meaningful quantity in the US.
  • Hypertension due to direct vasoconstrictive effects is the most common effect.
  • Reflex bradycardia may occur, particularly with phenylpropanolamine.
  • Headache due to elevated BP and even CVA may occur.

Sympathomimetic Poisoning - etiology

Causative agents:

• Agents with combined alpha and beta adrenergic activity: Epinephrine, norepinephrine,dopamine, ephedrine, and pseudoephedrine
• Alpha 1 adrenergic agonists: Phenylephrine, phenylpropanolamine
• Beta adrenergic agonists: Nonselective beta agonist isoproterenol
• Selective beta 1 agonists: Dobutamine
• Selective beta 2 agonists: Albuterol, salmeterol, terubutarine, ritodrine
• OTC agents: Ephedrine-containing cold medicine, ephedra, Ma Huang
• Illicit drugs: Cocaine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA (ecstasy)
• Theophylline and caffeine may cause a clinical syndrome of sympathomimetic poisoning.

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: The 5-Minute Pediatric Consult, 2008

 » Next page: Symptoms of Campylobacter food poisoning

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