Erythema
Erythema: Excerpt from Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses
Dilated or congested blood vessels produce red skin, or erythema, the most common sign of skin inflammation or irritation. Also known as erythroderma, erythema may be localized or generalized and may occur suddenly or gradually. Skin color can range from bright red in patients with acute conditions to pale violet or brown in those with chronic problems. Erythema must be differentiated from purpura, which causes redness from bleeding into the skin. When pressure is applied directly to the skin, erythema blanches momentarily, but purpura doesn’t. Moreover, when erythema is caused by inflammation, the skin over the site feels warmer than the rest of the skin.
Erythema usually results from changes in the arteries, veins, and small vessels that lead to increased small-vessel perfusion. Drugs and neurogenic mechanisms can allow extra blood to enter the small vessels. Erythema can also result from trauma and tissue damage; changes in supporting tissues, which increase vessel visibility; and several rare disorders.
Emergency Actions
If your patient has sudden progressive erythema with rapid pulse, dyspnea, hoarseness, and agitation, quickly take his vital signs. These may be indications of anaphylactic shock. Provide emergency respiratory support and give epinephrine.
History
If erythema isn’t associated with anaphylaxis, obtain a detailed health history. Find out how long the patient has had the erythema and where it first began. Has he had any associated pain or itching? Has he recently had a fever, upper respiratory tract infection, or joint pain? Does he have a history of skin disease or other illness? Does he or anyone in his family have allergies, asthma, or eczema? Find out if he has been exposed to someone who has had a similar rash or who’s now ill. Did he have a recent fall or injury in the area of erythema?
Obtain a complete drug history, including recent immunizations. Ask about food intake and exposure to chemicals.
Physical assessment
Begin the physical examination by assessing the extent, distribution, and intensity of erythema. Look for edema and other skin lesions, such as hives, scales, papules, and purpura. Examine the affected area for warmth, and gently palpate it to check for tenderness or crepitus.
CULTURAL CUE:Dark-skinned patients may have difficulty recognizing erythema; as a result, they may present with associated diseases in a more advanced state.
Medical causes
Allergic reactions
Foods, drugs, chemicals, and other allergens can cause an allergic reaction and erythema. A localized allergic reaction also produces hivelike eruptions and edema.
Anaphylaxis, a life-threatening condition, produces relatively sudden erythema in the form of urticaria. It also produces flushing; facial edema; diaphoresis; weakness; sneezing; bronchospasm with dyspnea and tachypnea; shock with hypotension and cool, clammy skin; and possibly airway edema with hoarseness and stridor.
Burns
With thermal burns, erythema and swelling appear first, possibly followed by deep or superficial blisters and other signs of damage that vary with the severity of the burn. Burns from ultraviolet rays, such as sunburn, cause delayed erythema and tenderness on exposed areas of the skin.
Candidiasis
When candidiasis, a fungal infection, affects the skin, it produces erythema and a scaly, papular rash under the breasts and at the axillae, neck, umbilicus, and groin, also known as intertrigo. Small pustules commonly occur at the periphery of the rash (satellite pustulosis).
Cellulitis
With cellulitis, erythema, tenderness, and edema are a result of a bacterial infection of the skin and subcutaneous tissue. The patient typically feels pain and a warm sensation at the site of the infection.
Dermatitis
Erythema commonly occurs in dermatitis, a group of inflammatory disorders. With atopic dermatitis, erythema and intense pruritus precede the development of small papules that may redden, weep, scale, and lichenify. These occur most commonly at skin folds of the extremities, neck, and eyelids.
Contact dermatitis occurs after exposure to an irritant. It quickly produces erythema and vesicles, blisters, or ulcerations on exposed skin.
With seborrheic dermatitis, erythema appears with dull-red or yellow lesions. Sharply marginated, these lesions are sometimes ring shaped and covered with greasy scales. They usually occur on the scalp, eyebrows, ears, and nasolabial folds, but they may form a butterfly rash on the face or move to the chest or to skin folds on the trunk.
Erysipelas
Erysipelas — a skin infection caused by group A beta-hemolytic streptococci — is characterized by an abrupt onset on reddish, well-demarcated, tender, warm, sometimes elevated areas most commonly on the face and neck, although it may also occur on the extremities. Flaccid bullae that may be filled with pus may occur after 2 to 3 days. Associated signs and symptoms include fever, chills, local adenopathy, malaise, headache, and sore throat.
Erythema annulare centrifugum
With erythema annulare centrifugum, small, pink infiltrated papules appear on the trunk, buttocks, and inner thighs, slowly spreading at the margins and clearing in the center. Itching, scaling, and tissue hardening may also occur.
Erythema marginatum rheumaticum
Associated with rheumatic fever, erythema marginatum rheumaticum causes erythematous lesions that are superficial, flat, and slightly hardened. They shift, spread rapidly, and may last for hours or days, recurring after a time.
Erythema multiforme
Erythema multiform minor has typical urticarial red-pink, iris-shaped, localized lesions with little or no mucous membrane involvement. Most lesions occur on flexor surfaces of the extremities. Burning or itching may occur before or in conjunction with lesion development. Lesions appear in crops and last 2 to 3 weeks. After 1 week individual lesions become flat or hyperpigmented. Early signs and symptoms may include a mild fever, cough, and sore throat.
Erythema multiforme major usually occurs as a drug reaction; has widespread symmetrical, bullous lesions that may become confluent; and includes erosions of the mucous membranes. Erythema is characteristically preceded by blisters on the lips, tongue, and buccal mucosa and a sore throat. Additional signs and symptoms that occur early in the course of the disease include cough, vomiting, diarrhea, coryza, and epistaxis. Later signs and symptoms include fever, prostration, difficulty with oral intake due to mouth and lip lesions, conjunctivitis due to ulceration, vulvitis, and balanitis.
Erythema nodosum
Sudden bilateral eruption of tender erythematous nodules characterizes erythema nodosum. These firm, round, protruding lesions usually appear in crops on the shins, knees, and ankles but may occur on the buttocks, arms, calves, and trunk as well. Other effects include mild fever, chills, malaise, muscle and joint pain and, possibly, swollen feet and ankles. Erythema nodosum is associated with various diseases, most notably inflammatory bowel disease, sarcoidosis, tuberculosis, and streptococcal and fungal infections.
Frostbite
First-degree frostbite turns the affected body part a lifeless gray color, followed by an intense bluish red flush on rewarming. Blisters, lack of feeling, and tissue necrosis may follow.
Gout
Gout is characterized by tight and erythematous skin over an inflamed, edematous joint. The metatarsophalangeal joint of the great toe usually becomes inflamed first, followed by the instep, ankle, heel, knee, or wrist joints.
Intertrigo
With intertrigo, a superficial fungal infection, skin friction usually causes symmetrical erythema that may be accompanied by soreness or itching. Typically, erythema occurs in skin folds, such as in the groin; in severe cases, the skin may become bright red with erosion and maceration.
Liver disease (chronic)
Any chronic liver disease, such as cirrhosis, can cause local vasodilation and palmar erythema along with jaundice, pruritus, spider angiomas, xanthomas, and characteristic systemic signs.
Lupus erythematosus
Both discoid and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) can produce a characteristic butterfly rash. This erythematous eruption may range from a blush with swelling to a scaly, sharply demarcated, macular rash with plaques that may spread to the forehead, chin, ears, chest, and other sun-exposed parts of the body.
Telangiectasia, hyperpigmentation, ear and nose deformity, and mouth, tongue, and eyelid lesions may occur with discoid lupus erythematosus.
With SLE, acute onset of erythema may also be accompanied by photosensitivity and mucous membrane ulcers, especially in the nose and mouth. Mottled erythema may occur on the hands, with edema around the nails and macular reddish purple lesions on the fingers. Telangiectasia occurs at the base of the nails or eyelids, along with purpura, petechiae, ecchymoses, and urticaria. Joint pain and stiffness are common. Other findings vary according to the body systems affected but typically include low-grade fever, malaise, weakness, headache, arthralgias, arthritis, depression, lymphadenopathy, fatigue, weight loss, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and constipation.
Polymorphous light eruption
Polymorphous light eruption produces erythema, vesicles, plaques, and multiple small papules on sun-exposed areas, which may later eczematize, lichenify, and excoriate. Pruritus may also occur.
Psoriasis
With psoriasis, silvery white scales that occur over a thickened erythematous base usually affect the elbows, knees, chest, scalp, and intergluteal folds. The fingernails may become thick and pitted.
Raynaud’s disease
With Raynaud’s disease, the skin on the hands and feet typically blanches and cools after exposure to cold and stress. Later, it becomes warm and purplish red. Numbness and tingling may also occur.
Rheumatoid arthritis
In a flare-up of rheumatoid arthritis, erythema occurs over the affected joints along with heat, swelling, pain, and stiffness. Earlier symptoms include malaise, fatigue, myalgia, prolonged morning stiffness, and clumsiness. As the disease progresses, muscle atrophy, palmar erythema, generalized edema, mottled skin, and structural deformities occur.
Rosacea
With rosacea, scattered erythema initially develops across the center of the face, followed by superficial telangiectases, papules, pustules, and nodules. Rhinophyma may occur on the lower half of the nose.
Rubella
With rubella, flat solitary lesions join to form a blotchy pink erythematous rash that spreads rapidly to the trunk and extremities. Occasionally, small red lesions (Forschheimer spots) occur on the soft palate. Lesions clear in 4 to 5 days. The rash usually follows fever (up to 102° F [38.9° C]), headache, malaise, sore throat, a gritty eye sensation, lymphadenopathy, pain in the joints, and coryza.
Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome
Also known as Ritter’s disease, this disease occurs mainly in infants and small children. It’s caused by Staphylococcus aureus and is characterized by erythema and widespread exfoliation of superficial epidermal layers, resembling scalded skin. Associated signs and symptoms include low-grade fever and irritability. Death may occur, especially in infants with extensive disease.
Thrombophlebitis
Although thrombophlebitis sometimes produces no symptoms, it can produce erythema over the inflamed vein. Fever, chills, and malaise may accompany severe, localized pain, warmth, and induration; distal edema; and a positive Homans’sign.
Other causes
Drugs
Many drugs commonly cause erythema. (See Drugs associated with erythema.)
Radiation and other treatments
Radiation therapy may produce dull erythema and edema within 24 hours. As the erythema fades, the skin becomes light brown and mildly scaly. Any treatment that causes an allergic reaction can also cause erythema.
Special considerations
Because erythema can cause fluid loss, closely monitor and replace fluids and electrolytes, especially in patients with burns or widespread erythema. Be sure to withhold all medications until the cause of the erythema has been identified. Then expect to administer an antibiotic and a topical or systemic corticosteroid.
For the patient with itching skin, expect to give soothing baths or apply open wet dressings containing starch, bran, or sodium bicarbonate; also administer an antihistamine and an analgesic as needed. Advise a patient with leg erythema to keep his legs elevated above heart level. For a burn patient with erythema, immerse the affected area in cold water, or apply a sheet soaked in cold water to reduce pain, edema, and erythema.
Prepare the patient for diagnostic tests, such as skin biopsy to detect cancerous lesions, cultures to identify infectious organisms, and sensitivity studies to confirm allergies.
Pediatric pointers
Typically, neonate rash (erythema toxicum neonatorum), a pink papular rash, develops during the first 4 days after birth and spontaneously disappears by the 10th day. Neonates and infants can also develop erythema from infections and other disorders. For instance, candidiasis can produce thick white lesions over an erythematous base on the oral mucosa as well as diaper rash with beefy red erythema.
Roseola, rubeola, scarlet fever, granuloma annulare, and cutis marmorata also cause erythema in children.
Geriatric pointers
Elderly patients commonly have well-demarcated purple macules or patches, usually on the back of the hands and on the forearms. Known as actinic purpura, this condition results from blood leaking through fragile capillaries. The lesions disappear spontaneously.
Patient counseling
Teach patients with a chronic disease such as SLE or psoriasis about the character of their typical rashes so they can be alert to any flare-ups of their disease. Also, advise such patients to avoid sun exposure and to use sunblock when appropriate.
Pictures
Book Source Details
- Book Title: Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses
- Author(s): Springhouse
- Year of Publication: 2007
- Copyright Details: Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses, Copyright © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
More About Erythema nodosum
More Medical Textbooks Online about Erythema nodosum
Review other book chapters online related to Erythema nodosum:
Medical Books Excerpts
- Erythema
- "Handbook of Signs & Symptoms (Third Edition)" (2006)
- [ read ]
- Erythema Multiforme
- "The 10-Minute Diagnosis Manual: Symptoms and Signs in the Time-Limited Encounter" (2000)
- [ read ]
- Erythema
- "Alarming Signs and Symptoms: Lippincott Manual of Nursing Practice Series" (2007)
- [ read ]
- Erythema
- "Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses" (2007)
- [ read ]
Copyright notice for book excerpts: Copyright © 2008 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. All rights reserved.
» Next page: Erythema [Erythroderma] (Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms)
Rate This Website
What do you think about the features of this website?
Take our user survey and have your say:
Website User Survey
Medical Tools & Articles:
Next articles:
Tools & Services:
Medical Articles:
Forums & Message Boards
- Ask or answer a question at the Boards:
