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Diagnosis of Hemophilus influenzae B

Hemophilus influenzae B Diagnosis: Book Excerpts

Diagnostic Tests for Hemophilus influenzae B: Online Medical Books

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SORE THROAT: Ask the Following Questions:
(Algorithmic Diagnosis of Symptoms and Signs)

  1. Are there exudates? This is a key question when evaluating a sore throat. Most cases of sore throat with exudates will be found to have streptococcal pharyngitis. Without exudates, one could still have a streptococcal sore throat, but it is less likely.
  2. Is there a temperature elevation? A significant elevation of the temperature, with or without exudates, is also characteristic of streptococcal pharyngitis.
  3. Are there enlarged lymph nodes? If the lymph nodes are enlarged in the peritonsillar area, this is often a sign of streptococcal sore throat, but it certainly is not diagnostic. Interestingly enough, 90% of patients with infectious mononucleosis have posterior cervical adenopathy.
  4. Are there systemic symptoms and signs? Patients who present with exudative tonsillitis and splenomegaly certainly should be considered to have infectious mononucleosis until proven otherwise. Also, an exudative tonsillitis along with a fever and heart murmur should make one consider rheumatic fever. Systemic symptoms such as dry cough, runny nose, and generalized malaise or fatigue should make one think of a viral URI.

DIAGNOSTIC WORKUP

In a sore throat with typical exudates very suggestive of streptococcal pharyngitis, a throat culture may be all one needs before starting definitive antibiotic therapy. In the more difficult cases, screening for streptococcal antigens (streptozyme test and ASO titer) might be indicated. An ASO titer is particularly important when one suspects rheumatic fever. If the patient's streptococcal sore throat persists, a Monospot test and a culture for gonorrhea should be done. Although there are hardly any false-negative Monospot tests, there are 10% false positives, and that should be kept in mind. A blood smear for atypical lymphocytes may be helpful, as well as a heterophile antibody titer in those cases.

 

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: Algorithmic Diagnosis of Symptoms and Signs, 2003

FEVER, ACUTE: Ask the Following Questions:
(Algorithmic Diagnosis of Symptoms and Signs)

  1. Is there a history of drug ingestion or injection? This will help diagnose drug reactions and serum sickness, which are common and easily discovered in the history. Patients with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency may develop fever after receiving certain drugs.
  2. Is there a rash? The presence of a rash should make one think of a drug reaction, meningococcemia, the various exanthems, and subacute bacterial endocarditis.
  3. Is there localized pain? If there is a sore throat, obviously streptococcal pharyngitis or a viral URI is likely. If there is headache, meningitis or encephalitis must be considered. If there is chest pain, one should consider a pulmonary infarct, myocardial infarction, or Bornholm disease. If there is abdominal pain, one would consider pyelonephritis, cholecystitis, and appendicitis among the various conditions. If there is joint pain, one should consider rheumatic fever, rheumatoid arthritis, or septic arthritis.
  4. Is there a focal discharge? A productive cough would make one consider pneumonia. A rectal discharge would make one consider a perirectal abscess. A urethral discharge should make one think of gonorrhea.
  5. Are there other localizing signs? Frequency of urination should make one think of pyelonephritis. A productive cough should make one think of pneumonia, whereas jaundice would make one think of hepatitis.

DIAGNOSTIC WORKUP

Routine studies include a CBC, sedimentation rate, chemistry panel, urinalysis, chest x-rays, VDRL test, and tuberculin skin test. Serial blood cultures should be done on all patients. Febrile agglutinins usually should be done. An ASO titer or streptozyme test should be done to exclude rheumatic fever. RNA, ANA, and DNA tests should be done to look for lupus and other connective tissue disease. An HIV antibody titer may need to be ordered.

The next step is to culture any discharge or various body fluids that might be suspect. Thus, a urinalysis and urine culture should be done. A nose and throat culture should be done. A sputum smear and culture may need to be done. The next consideration is to do various serologic tests. A heterophile antibody titer should be done in teenagers. Febrile agglutinin tests may need to be done. Acute and convalescent phase sera for viral studies may need to be done.

Next one should do skin testing. Thus, histoplasmin, coccidioidin, and blastomycin skin testing should be done on patients with a cough. Trichinella skin testing may need to be done, as well as brucellin skin testing. A Kveim test might need to be done for suspected sarcoidosis.

The next step is to do plain x-rays of suspected areas. For instance, x-rays of the teeth may disclose an abscessed tooth. X-rays of the long bones may disclose a metastatic carcinoma.

The next step is contrast x-ray studies of various organ systems. An intravenous pyelogram may show a hypernephroma. A cholecystogram may show gallstones. An upper GI series and barium enema may show chronic pancreatitis or diverticulitis. Angiography may disclose periarteritis nodosa, aortitis or giant cell arteritis.

The next step is to do a CT scan of the abdomen and pelvis. If this is negative, consider a CT scan of the chest and mediastinum. Echocardiography may disclose valvular vegetations or an atrial myxoma.

Next, consider biopsying various organ systems. For instances, a lymph node biopsy may disclose a lymphoma or sarcoidosis. A muscle biopsy may disclose periarteritis nodosa, polymyositis, or trichinella.

Next one should do bone scans and gallium scans for possible metastasis, osteomyelitis, or localized abscesses.

If all these procedures fail to turn up a lesion, then an exploratory laparotomy may need to be done. A fibrin test may indicate Mediterranean fever, or urine for etiocholanolone may also indicate a relapsing type of fever. A urine test for porphobilinogen may diagnose porphyria.

The wisest move is to conduct this investigation with the help of an infectious disease specialist or a specialist in the body organ system most likely suspected of harboring the infection.

 

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: Algorithmic Diagnosis of Symptoms and Signs, 2003

FEVER, CHRONIC: Ask the Following Questions:
(Algorithmic Diagnosis of Symptoms and Signs)

  1. Is there a history of drug ingestion or injection? Of course, the history should reveal that the patient has been on a certain drug or has received certain antitoxins, serums, or vaccines.
  2. Is there a rash? If there is a rash, one should suspect subacute bacterial endocarditis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, secondary syphilis, rat-bite fever, pemphigus, a drug reaction, lupus erythematosus, dermatomyositis, or typhoid fever. There are other conditions associated with a rash also.
  3. Is there a characteristic pattern to the fever? The various forms of malaria give a characteristic pattern of the fever, as well as undulant fever in Hodgkin's disease.
  4. Is there localized pain? Abdominal pain should suggest a cholecystitis, hepatic abscess, diverticulitis, etc. A sore throat should suggest infectious mononucleosis, leukemia, and subacute thyroiditis. Joint pain should suggest rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatic fever, or gonococcal arthritis. Earache should suggest otitis media or mastoiditis. Chest pain should suggest tuberculosis, pleurisy, or empyema.
  5. Is there a localized discharge? Purulent sputum should suggest pneumonia, tuberculosis, or chronic fungal disease in the lung. A urethral discharge would suggest gonorrhea or Reiter's disease.
  6. Is there a localized mass or swelling? An abdominal mass would suggest hepatic abscess, pancreatic cyst, or diverticular abscess. A flank mass might suggest hypernephroma or perinephric abscess.

DIAGNOSTIC WORKUP

The diagnostic workup is similar to that for acute fever on page 168 .

 

» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

Source: Algorithmic Diagnosis of Symptoms and Signs, 2003

Fever: Differential Diagnosis
(In a Page: Signs and Symptoms)

  • Infection is the most common cause
    –Viral (e.g., influenza, HIV, hepatitis, herpes simplex encephalitis, mononucleosis, adenovirus)
    –Bacterial (e.g., pneumonia, endocarditis, tuberculosis, meningitis, pyelonephritis, appendicitis, cholecystitis, cellulitis)
    –Lyme disease
    –Malaria
    –Syphilis
    –Tularemia
    –Intra-abdominal abscess
  • Malignancy
    –Lymphoma (Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin's)
    –Lymphoproliferative disorders
    –Renal cell carcinoma
    –Leukemia
    –Hepatocellular carcinoma
  • Rheumatologic disorders
    –Temporal arteritis/giant cell arteritis
    –Adult-onset Still's disease
    –Systemic lupus erythematosus
    –Sarcoidosis
    –Rheumatoid arthritis
  • Drug fever
    –Often temporally associated with the initiation of a new medicine
    –Often associated with a rash (biopsy reveals leukocytoclastic vasculitis)
    –Eosinophilia is common
  • Pulmonary embolism
    –Mild fever is often present
    –Other findings of thromboembolic disease (e.g., leg swelling, dyspnea) may be present
  • Osteomyelitis
  • Occult abscess
  • Malignant hypothermia

    • Workup and Diagnosis

    • Complete history and physical examination
      –In most cases, the cause of fever will be suggested during the history and physical
      –Note characteristics of the fever, maximum temperature, presence of diurnal variation, and recent travel
    • Initial laboratory studies may include CBC with differential, electrolytes, BUN/creatinine, glucose, calcium, urinalysis, urine cultures, liver function tests, and ESR
    • Blood cultures, including thick smear of the blood to evaluate for parasites (e.g., malaria)
    • Chest X-ray may reveal focus of infection (e.g., pneumonia, tuberculosis, malignancy)
    • Lumbar puncture for CSF analysis may be indicated
    • CT scan of chest and abdomen may reveal an occult infection, abscess, or malignancy
    • Echocardiogram is indicated if suspect infective endocarditis or aortitis (syphilis)
    • Tagged white cell scans may be used to localize abscess
    • Bone marrow biopsy may be indicated if leukemia or a myelodysplastic syndrome is suspected

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: In a Page: Signs and Symptoms, 2004

    Sore Throat: Differential Diagnosis
    (In a Page: Signs and Symptoms)

    • Viral pharyngitis/laryngitis
      –Most common cause of sore throat
      –Associated with cough, low-grade fever, nasal congestion, and sneezing
      –Influenza occasionally causes sore throat with high fever, cough, severe myalgias
      –Rhino-, adeno-, coxsackie-, and herpesvirus
      –Acute HIV infection
    • Mononucleosis
      –Associated with fever, headache, and excessive fatigue
      –Most common in teen and college ages
      –May have associated lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly, hepatitis, or encephalitis
    • Streptococcal pharyngitis
      –May be associated with scarlatiniform rash, fever >101°F (>38.3°C), exudative pharyngitis, tender cervical lymphadenopathy, and absence of cough
      –More common in winter months, ages 5–10, and with history of group A Streptococcus exposure
    • Allergic pharyngitis
    • Gonococcal pharyngitis
    • Fungal pharyngitis (e.g., Candida)
      • Foreign body in throat
        –Most often occurs in smaller children
        –Associated with sudden onset of audible wheezing, stridor, drooling
      • GERD
      • Sore throat secondary to postnasal drip
      • Irritation secondary to inhalants (e.g., cigarette smoke), chemicals (e.g., alcohol), hot foods
      • Voice abuse (e.g., excessive screaming)
      • Deep neck space infections (e.g., retropharyngeal abscess, peritonsillar abscess, Ludwig's angina)
        • Epiglottitis/bacterial tracheitis
          –Occurs in children ages 2–7 and increasingly in adults
        • Diphtheria
        • Trauma
        • Lymphadenitis (cervical)
        • Cancer (e.g., tonsillar, tongue, laryngeal, esophageal)
        • Caustic ingestions
        • Thyroiditis
        • Angina/acute coronary syndrome

        Workup and Diagnosis

        • History and physical exam often make the diagnosis
          –Consider exposure history, age, associated symptoms, past medical history (e.g. immunocompromise), use of inhaled steroids (e.g. with Candida pharyngitis), allergy history)
          –Focus on head and neck, lung, and abdominal examinations
        • Streptococcal pharyngitis is often a clinical diagnosis
          –Presence of three out of four of the following criteria suggests the diagnosis: Exudative pharyngitis (not just a red throat); tender anterior lymphadenopathy; presence or history of fever; and absence of a cough; whereas if none or one of the criteria exists, group A β-hemolytic streptococcus is unlikely
          –Streptococcal culture is the gold standard (inexpensive; identifies group A and others; 1–2 days for results)
          –Rapid strep testing is more expensive and identifies only group A strep, but gives immediate results; very specific (95%) but less sensitive (60–70%), so consider culture if negative
        • Monospot or CBC showing atypical lymphocytes is diagnostic for mononucleosis
        • X-ray for foreign body; laryngoscopy if unable to verify
        • Lateral neck X-ray may diagnose epiglottitis and retropharyngeal abscess
        • Gonococcal and diphtheria cultures if necessary
        • Barium swallow, upper GI series, or EGD for GERD

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: In a Page: Signs and Symptoms, 2004

    Rash with Fever: Differential Diagnosis
    (In a Page: Signs and Symptoms)

    • Viral exanthems
      –Leading cause of fever and rash in childhood
      –Most children present with low-grade fevers, viral prodromal symptoms, and a secondary diffuse exanthem that is usually nonspecific and morbilliform
      –Often last only a few days and requires only supportive management
    • Drug reactions
      –Account for a large portion of rashes with associated fever
      –Immune complex disease or serum sickness has been reported with many medications
    • Meningococcemia
      –Most common under age 1
      –After a brief prodrome; onset is abrupt with spiking fevers, diffuse purpuric lesions, delirium, and death
      –DIC and purpura fulminans with secondary necrosis of digits and limbs can occur
    • Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
      –A fulminant and deadly rickettsial disease transmitted by a tick bite
      –Only 60% of patients are aware of tick bite
      –Characteristic rash starts acrally on wrists and ankles and spreads toward the trunk
      –Initially, pink macules evolve over 10–24 hours into red papules, then purpuric macules and violaceous patches involving most of the body surface area
      –Necrosis and DIC may occur
    • Toxic shock syndrome, Staphylococcus aureus, and streptococcal diseases
      –Most cases due to toxin production
      –Rapid onset of fever, hypotension with generalized skin (palms and soles common) and mucous membrane erythema (“erythroderma” in case definition), and subsequent multiorgan failure
      –Palmar/solar desquamation in 1–3 weeks
      –A morbilliform rash and skin “pain” or hyperesthesia is common
      –Nonsurgical and surgical wounds are often the source of infection in the more common nonmenstrual variant of TSS
    • Fifth disease
    • Measles
    • Rubella
    • Parvovirus
    • Varicella

    Workup and Diagnosis

    • Because of a seemingly endless list of possible etiologies for fever and rash, a focused history and physical exam are essential to a quick, accurate diagnosis
    • Determine whether the patient appears toxic; age and presence of co-morbid conditions aid diagnosis
    • If there is any evidence of purpura;
      –Quickly consider the diagnosis of RMSF, meningococcemia, or systemic vasculitis
      –In the cases of meningococcemia and RMSF, the diagnosis must be made empirically, then later confirmed so that therapy is immediately initiated
  • Obtain bacterial cultures from any wounds, culture the pharynx if indicated, and consider skin biopsy and culture; blood cultures are indicated in toxic patients; consider immediate lumbar puncture for CSF culture and Gram stain if meningococcemia is suspected
  • Acute and convalescent antibody titers can confirm RMSF; skin biopsy with immunofluorescnce may demonstrate a vasculitis with visible rickettsial organisms within the endothelium
  • TSS is often diagnosed by history and examination alone; recent cutaneous injury and nonspecific morbilliform rash in a hypotensive patient in association with the presence of epidermal necrosis on skin biopsy can confirm the diagnosis; wound cultures with growth of staph or strep

    • » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: In a Page: Signs and Symptoms, 2004

    Sore Throat: Differential Diagnosis
    (In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms)

  • Infectious
    –Viral
         –Adenovirus
         –Rhinovirus
         –Parainfluenza
         –Influenza
         –Coronavirus
         –Others: EBV RSV, CMV, HSV
    –Bacterial
         –Streptococcus
         –Haemophilus
         –Moraxella
         –Staphylococcus
         –Corynebacterium
    –Fungal
         –Candida
    • Inflammatory
      –Allergy
      –Gastroesophageal reflux disease
      –Sinusitis resulting in postnasal drainage
      • Tumors
        –Leukemia
        –Rhabdosarcomas
        –Squamous cell carcinoma secondary to oral ulcerations
      • Trauma
        –Foreign body ingestion
        –Caustic ingestion
        –Soft tissue injury from accidental and nonaccidental trauma
    • Systemic/rheumatologic disorders
      –Kawasaki disease: Mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome may have sore throat at presentation (other oral findings include strawberry tongue, fissured lips, mucosal erythema, fever, and lymphadenopathy)
      –Behçet syndrome
      –Reiter syndrome
      • Others
        –Cigarette smoke
        –Environmental pollutants
        –Pharyngeal drying: Mouth and pharynx can be dry from mouth breathing, more common in the winter months

    Workup and Diagnosis

  • History
    –Duration, onset, severity, frequency, odynophagia, dysphagia, daycare, sick contacts, fever, malaise, headache
    –Foreign body and caustic ingestion
    –Days of school or work missed
    –Immunization history
    –Medical history: Systemic disease, connective tissue disorder
      • Physical exam
        –Nasal exam: Evidence of rhinosinusitis
        –Mouth: Ulcerations, masses, tonsil size, erythema, exudates
        –Neck: Lymphadenopathy
        –Skin: Rash
        –Chest: Wheezes, asymmetry
    • Studies
      –For pharyngitis: A major goal is to differentiate streptococcal pharyngitis from viral etiologies
      –Throat culture: 92% sensitive; 100% specific; requires 24–48 hours
      –Rapid strep test: 72–85% sensitive; 88–100% specific
      –CBC with differential for suspected mononucleosis
      –Chest X-ray (inspiratory and expiratory) for suspected foreign body
      –CT neck: When complication of infection is suspected such as abscess

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms, 2007

    Fever – Cyclic: Differential Diagnosis
    (In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms)

      • PFAPA, or Marshall syndrome
        –Periodic fever (usually high, 104°F [40°C]), aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis, and adenitis
        –Most common diagnosis for true cyclic fever, usually in children <5 years
        –Recurs every 3–4 weeks
      • Cyclic neutropenia
        –Periodic fever, average cycle of 21 days
        –Pharyngitis, mouth ulcers, and lymphadenopathy are also noted
        –May not be associated with infection
      • Infectious diseases
        –Relapsing fever due to Borrelia recurrentis,
        relapses every 10–14 days
        –EBV may occur at 6–8 week intervals
      • Familial Mediterranean fever
        –Brief attacks of fever and serositis
        –Autosomal recessive disease
        –Sephardic Jews, Arabs, Turks, and Armenians commonly affected
        –50% have onset before 10 years of age
        –May occur in regular 7–28-day intervals
        –Amyloidosis is a possible complication
    • Hyper-IgD and periodic fever syndrome (HIDS)
      –High fevers, abdominal pain, cervical lymphadenopathy, sometimes diarrhea and arthritis, in early infancy
      –Autosomal recessive, most patients from Western Europe (French, Dutch)
      –Cycles may be regular every 14–28 days
      • TNF-receptor-associated periodic syndrome (TRAPS) or Hibernian fever
        –Fever, myalgias with migratory pattern, conjunctivitis and rash
        –Autosomal dominant
        –first described in Irish/Scottish individuals but other ethnic groups involved
        –Amyloidosis is a possible complication (25% of untreated individuals)
        • Familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome or familial cold urticaria
          –Rash, fever, arthralgia, and conjunctivitis
          –Precipitated by exposure to cold
      • Factitious fever

      Workup and Diagnosis

      • History
        –Age of onset, duration of episodes, duration of symptom-free periods, associated symptoms (pharyngitis, aphthous ulcers)
        –Lymphadenopathy, abdominal pain
        –Family history of cyclic fever, ethnicity
        –Exposure to ticks (woods, camping), travel history
        • Physical exam (during fever episode)
          –Mouth ulcers, pharyngitis, lymphadenitis, conjunctivitis
          –Abdominal tenderness, hepatosplenomegaly
          –Arthritis, rash
          –Pericardial friction, pleurisy
        • Physical exam (during fever-free interval)
          –Growth parameters
          –Neurologic exam (ataxia, retardation)
          –Heart murmur
          –Hepatosplenomegaly, lymphadenopathy
        • CBC with differential, diagnostic for cyclic neutropenia
        • Immunoglobulins IgA and IgD (elevated in HIDS)
        • Dark-field microscopy examination of wet peripheral blood for Borrelia recurrentis
        • Familial Mediterranean fever
          –Major and minor diagnostic criteria are available
          –Confirmed by gene analysis
        • Low levels of serum type 1 TNF receptor in TRAPS
        • Documentation of fever in the office should exclude factitious fever
      >

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms, 2007

    Fever – Recurrent: Differential Diagnosis
    (In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms)

      • Repeated viral infections
        –Most common cause of recurrent febrile episodes in childhood
        –Start of day care or change of geographic location may be related
      • Urinary tract infection (UTI)
        –May be self-limited but recur especially if underlying anomaly exists
      • Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
        –May present with recurrent febrile episodes due to one initial infection
    • Other specific viral syndromes
      –Parvovirus B19
      –CMV
      • Immunodeficiency
        –Repeated bacterial infections should lead to investigation of immune status
    • Dental abscess (non-dental abscesses typically present with prolonged daily fever)
    • Chronic meningococcemia
    • Acute rheumatic fever
    • Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
    • Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA)
    • Behçet disease
      • Tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated periodic syndrome (TRAPS) or Hibernian Fever
        –Autosomal dominant disease with fever, myalgias with migratory pattern, conjunctivitis and rash
      • Familial cold autoinflammatory syndrome or familial cold urticaria
        –Rash, fever, arthralgia, and conjunctivitis
        –Precipitated by exposure to cold
    • Muckle-Wells syndrome
      –Similar presentation to familial cold urticaria
      –Symptoms not triggered by cold
      • Brucellosis
        –Most prevalent around the Mediterranean and Arabic countries, also present in South America and India
    • Yersiniosis
    • Typhoid fever
    • Rat-bite fever
    • Malaria
    • Factitious fever

    Workup and Diagnosis

    • History
      –Documentation of fever
      –Duration of episodes and fever-free intervals
      –Symptoms associated with the fever
      –Symptoms during the fever-free intervals
      –Weight loss
      –Recent documented infections, medications
      –Travel, animal and insect exposure
      –Specific conditions related to episodes (e.g., cold)
    • Physical exam
      –Vitals, growth parameters (failure to thrive can be a presentation of UTI and immunodeficiency)
      –Rash (transient pink rash in JRA)
      –Ophthalmologic exam: Uveitis (IBD and Behçet), conjunctivitis (TRAPS)
      –Hepatosplenomegaly, lymphadenopathy
      –Genital ulcers (Behçet)
      –Perianal skin tags (IBD)
      –Mouth ulcers, pharyngitis
      –Arthritis
    • CBC with differential
    • ESR or CRP
    • Urine culture
    • Blood culture
    • Serology for EBV, CMV, or Parvovirus B19
    • Low levels of serum type 1 TNF receptor in TRAPS
    • Documentation of fever in the office should exclude the possibility of factitious fever

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms, 2007

    Fever – Unknown Origin: Differential Diagnosis
    (In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms)

    • Infections (40%)
      –Infectious mononucleosis (EBV, CMV)
      –Other systemic viral syndromes (e.g., HIV)
      –UTI (e.g., E. coli)
      –Osteomyelitis (e.g., staphylococcus)
      –Upper and lower respiratory infections (sinusitis, mastoiditis, pneumonia)
      –Cat-scratch disease (Bartonella henselae)
      –Tuberculosis, nontuberculous mycobacterial infections
      –Abscess (abdominal or retroperitoneal)
      –CNS infections
      –Endocarditis (subacute)
      –Salmonellosis
      –Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi)
      –Leptospirosis
      –Congenital syphilis
      –Others: Brucellosis, histoplasmosis, leishmaniasis, yersiniosis, Q fever (Coxiella burnetii), Rocky Mountain spotted fever (Rickettsia rickettsii)
      • Autoimmune diseases (15%)
        –Rheumatoid arthritis accounts for 3/4 of FUO due to autoimmune diseases
        –Systemic lupus erythematosus
        –Rheumatic fever
        –Vasculitis (e.g., HSP)
        –Sarcoidosis
      • Neoplastic diseases (7%)
        –Leukemia/lymphoma accounts for 80% of
        FUO due to malignancies
        –Neuroblastoma
        –Hepatoma
        –Soft tissue sarcoma
    • Inflammatory bowel disease (3%)
    • Drugs and nutritional supplements (drug fever)
    • Factitious fever
    • Munchausen by proxy
    • Neurologic disorders
      –Familial dysautonomia
      –Central thermoregulatory disorder
      –Head injury
    • Hyperthyroidism
    • Anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia
    • Diabetes insipidus
    • Kikuchi disease

    Workup and Diagnosis

      • History
        –Differentiate between FUO and multiple febrile
      • illnesses that occur in short period of time
        –Daily documentation of fever, onset, duration
        –Weight loss, diet history, medications, sick contacts
        –Animal or tick exposure, travel, foreign contacts
        –Immune status, history of transfusion, surgery
        –FH of autoimmune or neoplastic diseases
    • Physical exam
      –Vital signs, growth parameters
      –Skin (rash, desquamation, jaundice)
      –Ophthalmologic exam (conjunctivitis, uveitis)
      –Oral lesions
      –Cardiologic exam (new onset murmur)
      –Abdominal exam (masses, hepatosplenomegaly)
      –Testicular exam
      –Muscle tenderness, bone tenderness, arthritis
      –Lymphadenopathy
      –Neurologic exam
      • Labs
        –CBC, ESR, C-reactive protein
        –Renal and hepatic function tests, albumin and globulin
        –Urinalysis, blood and urine culture
        –Viral titers, PPD, cultures for specific organisms, ASO, ANA, bone marrow
    • Radiographic imaging with plain films, ultrasound, bone scan, CT scan or MRI of specific organ systems as warranted by the history and physical exam

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms, 2007

    Fever – Acute: Differential Diagnosis
    (In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms)

      • Viral infections
        –Account for the majority of febrile illnesses (FI) in infancy and childhood
        –Upper respiratory infections (e.g., parainfluenza virus)
        –Lower respiratory infections (e.g., RSV)
        –Non-bacterial gastroenteritis (e.g., rotavirus)
        –Aseptic meningitis (e.g., enterovirus)
    • Bacterial infections
      –UTIs account for 1.7% of FI in children 5 years and 7.5% in infants <8 weeks
      –Pneumonia (e.g., group A streptococcus)
      –Bacteremia (2% of FI in all children, highest rates seen in younger infants)
      –Meningitis (0.8% of FI in all children)
      –In febrile neonates, the overall rate of serious bacterial infections (SBI) is ~13%
    • Vaccine reaction
      • Collagen vascular diseases
        –Kawasaki disease: 3,000 cases per year in the U.S., rates higher in Asia, 80% of cases occur in children <5 years
        –Henoch-Schönlein purpura: Low-grade fever is present in 50% of cases
        –Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis: Incidence 1/10,000
        –SLE
        –Acute rheumatic fever
      • Malignancy
        –Leukemia: Most common childhood malignancy; early symptoms include fever, fatigue, pallor, anemia, bone pain
        –Lymphoma
        –Solid tumors (neuroblastoma, sarcoma)
      • Inflammatory bowel disease
        –Diarrhea, pain, fever, blood loss
        –Crohn disease, ulcerative colitis
      • Tissue injury (trauma, hematoma, burns)
      • Drug reaction
      • Biologic agents (blood products, gamma-globulin)
      • Endocrinologic disorders
        –Thyrotoxicosis
        –Pheochromocytoma
      • Genetic diseases
        –Familial Mediterranean fever
      • Factitious fever

      Workup and Diagnosis

        • History
          –Rash, vomiting, diarrhea
          –Cough, nasal or eye discharge
          –Myalgias, arthralgias, bone pain
          –Bleeding, weight loss
          –Sick contacts, daycare attendance
          –Birth history (prematurity, neonatal complications)
          –Travel, animal and insect exposure
          –Medications, recent antibiotic use; immunizations, last date received
          –Immunodeficiency, chronic illnesses
      • Physical exam
        –Temperature: Rectal preferred for infants <3 months
        –Vitals: Relative brady- or tachycardia, tachypnea
        –Growth parameters especially if frequent febrile episodes/infections (immunodeficiency)
        –Appearance, irritability, quality of cry, consolability
        –Skin (color, rash, desquamation), conjunctivitis, ocular or nasal discharge, mouth lesions, throat and ear exam
        –Lymphadenopathy, abdominal exam, neuro exam
        –Joint exam (arthritis), muscle tenderness
          • Labs
            –Febrile neonates (<28 days) should have sepsis evaluation (CBC; blood, urine, CSF culture)
            –Febrile young infants are evaluated according to general appearance and/or focus of fever by exam
        • Immunologic workup and/or bone marrow for prolonged fever and/or other clinical evidence
        >>>>

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: In A Page: Pediatric Signs and Symptoms, 2007

    FEVER: Approach to the Diagnosis
    (Differential Diagnosis in Primary Care)

    There are certain things to remember when a patient with fever is approached. First, a mild elevation up to 100.5°F (38°C) rectally may be normal in some people. Second, one should rule out malingering by the patient or incorrect recording by hospital personnel. Finally, psychogenic disorders must be ruled out.

    The duration and severity of the fever are important. If possible, a careful chart of the fever should be made with the patient off all drugs (especially aspirin and steroids). Conditions with intermittent or relapsing fever such as brucellosis, malaria, and Mediterranean fever will be elucidated in this fashion (Table 28).

    The association with other symptoms is important. Fever, right upper quadrant pain, and jaundice suggest cholecystitis or cholangitis, whereas fever with right-sided flank pain suggests pyelonephritis. After taking a few moments to jot down the differential before launching into the history and physical examination, one can question and examine the patient more appropriately. The differential diagnosis will also lead to more appropriate use of laboratory testing.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Differential Diagnosis in Primary Care, 2007

    SORE THROAT: Approach to the Diagnosis
    (Differential Diagnosis in Primary Care)

    In diagnosing the cause of sore throat, it has been traditional to do a throat culture and possibly a CBC and differential and start the patient on penicillin until the culture comes back. Now Abbott Laboratories (Abbott Park, IL, U.S.A.) has developed a rapid Streptococcus agglutination test on a throat swab. In resistant cases, repeated cultures (especially for diphtheria, gonorrhea, and Listeria organisms) and a monospot test will be useful. Because the titer for infectious mononucleosis may not be high initially, the differential test (Paul–Bunnell) or a repeated monospot test 1 to 3 weeks later may be necessary. Remember that subacute thyroiditis may present as a sore throat.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Differential Diagnosis in Primary Care, 2007

    Fever: History and physical examination
    (Handbook of Signs & Symptoms (Third Edition))

    If the patient’s fever is only mild to moderate, ask him when it began and how high his temperature reached. Did the fever disappear, only to reappear later? Did he experience other symptoms, such as chills, fatigue, or pain?

    Obtain a complete medical history, noting especially immunosuppressive treatments or disorders, infection, trauma, surgery, diagnostic testing, and the use of anesthesia or other medications. Ask about recent travel because certain diseases are endemic.

    Let the history findings direct your physical examination. Because a fever can accompany diverse disorders, the examination may range from a brief evaluation of one body system to a comprehensive review of all systems. (SeeHow fever develops.)

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Handbook of Signs & Symptoms (Third Edition), 2006

    Haemophilus influenzae infection: Diagnosis
    (Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

    CONFIRMING DIAGNOSIS Isolation of the organism, usually with a blood culture, confirms the diagnosis of H. influenzae infection.

    Other laboratory findings include:

    ❑polymorphonuclear leukocytosis (15,000 to 30,000/µl)

    ❑leukopenia (2,000 to 3,000/µl) in young children with severe infection

    ❑H. influenzae bacteremia, found in many patients with meningitis.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005

    Colorado tick fever: Diagnosis
    (Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

    CONFIRMING DIAGNOSIS A history of recent exposure to ticks along with moderate to severe leukopenia, complement fixation tests, or virus isolation confirm the diagnosis.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005

    Lassa fever: Diagnosis
    (Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

    CONFIRMING DIAGNOSIS Isolation of the Lassa virus from throat washings, pleural fluid, or blood confirms the diagnosis.

    Recent travel to an endemic area and specific antibody titer support the diagnosis.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005

    Relapsing fever: Diagnosis
    (Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

    CONFIRMING DIAGNOSIS Diagnosis requires demonstration of the spirochetes in peripheral blood smears during febrile periods, using Wright's or Giemsa stain.

    Borrelia spirochetes may be more difficult to detect in later relapses because their number declines in the blood. In such cases, injecting the patient's blood or tissue into a young rat and incubating the organism in the rat’s blood for 1 to 10 days commonly allows spirochete identification.

    In severe infection, spirochetes are found in the urine and cerebrospinal fluid. Other abnormal laboratory results usually include a white blood cell (WBC) count as high as 25,000/µl, with increases in lymphocytes and erythrocyte sedimentation rate; however, the WBC count may be normal. Because the Borrelia organism is a spirochete, relapsing fever may cause a false-positive test for syphilis in 5% to 10% of cases.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005

    Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease: Diagnosis
    (Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

    Diagnosis depends on recognition of one or more of the classic symptoms (carditis, rheumatic fever without carditis, polyarthritis, chorea, erythema marginatum, or subcutaneous nodules) and a detailed patient history. Laboratory data support the diagnosis:

    ❑ White blood cell count and erythrocyte sedimentation rate may be elevated (during the acute phase); blood studies show slight anemia due to suppressed erythropoiesis during inflammation.

    ❑ C-reactive protein is positive (especially during acute phase).

    ❑ Cardiac enzyme levels may be increased in severe carditis.

    ❑ Antistreptolysin-O titer is elevated in 95% of patients within 2 months of onset.

    ❑ Electrocardiogram changes aren’t diagnostic; but PR interval is prolonged in 20% of patients.

    ❑ Chest X-rays show normal heart size (except with myocarditis, heart failure, or pericardial effusion).

    ❑ Echocardiography helps evaluate valvular damage, chamber size, and ventricular function.

    ❑ Cardiac catheterization evaluates valvular damage and left ventricular function in severe cardiac dysfunction.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005

    Rocky Mountain spotted fever: Diagnosis
    (Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

    CONFIRMING DIAGNOSIS Diagnosis is usually based on a history of tick bite or travel to a tick-infested area and a positive complement fixation test (which shows a fourfold increase in convalescent antibody titer compared with acute titers). Blood cultures or skin biopsy at the rash site should be performed to isolate the organism and confirm the diagnosis.

    Another common but less reliable antibody test is the Weil-Felix reaction, which also shows a fourfold increase between the acute and convalescent sera titer levels. Increased titers usually develop after 10 to 14 days and persist for several months.

    Additional recommended laboratory tests consist of a platelet count for thrombocytopenia (12,000 to 150,000/µl) and a white blood cell count (elevated to 11,000 to 33,000/µl) during the second week of illness.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005

    Influenza: Diagnosis
    (Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

    At the beginning of an influenza epidemic, early cases are usually mistaken for other respiratory disorders.

    CONFIRMING DIAGNOSIS Because signs and symptoms of influenza aren’t pathognomonic, isolation of M. influenzae through nose and throat cultures and increased serum antibody titers help confirm this diagnosis. Also, rapid diagnostic methods for detecting influenza are now available and help confirm this diagnosis.

    After these measures confirm an influenza epidemic, diagnosis requires only observation of clinical signs and symptoms. Uncomplicated cases show a decreased white blood cell count with an increase in lymphocytes.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005

    Fever [Pyrexia]: History and physical examination
    (Professional Guide to Signs & Symptoms (Fifth Edition))

    If the patient’s fever is only mild to moderate, ask him when it began and how high his temperature reached. Did the fever disappear, only to reappear later? Did he experience any other symptoms, such as chills, fatigue, or pain?

    Obtain a complete medical history, noting especially immunosuppressive treatments or disorders, infection, trauma, surgery, diagnostic testing, and use of anesthesia or other medications. Ask about recent travel because certain diseases are endemic.

    Let the history findings direct your physical examination. (See Differential diagnosis: Fever, pages 338 and 339.) Because fever can accompany diverse disorders, the examination may range from a brief evaluation of one body system to a comprehensive review of all systems. (See How fever develops, page 340.)

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Professional Guide to Signs & Symptoms (Fifth Edition), 2006

    Fever: History
    (The 10-Minute Diagnosis Manual: Symptoms and Signs in the Time-Limited Encounter)

    A. Taking a detailed patient history is critical; include questions relating to travel, animal exposure, occupation, injuries or operations, household members or contacts who are ill, medications, past illnesses, and a complete review of systems.

    B. Chills, malaise, myalgia, headache, and fever are common with infectious diseases.

    C. The febrile pattern may be helpful in making a diagnosis. Antipyretics, antibiotics, and glucocorticoids affect the fever pattern. Specific patterns of fever are shown in Table 2.4.

    Physical examination

    A. The examination should include the skin, lymph nodes, eyes, nail beds, heart, lungs, abdomen, joints, nervous system, and genitourinary system, including rectal and bimanual pelvic examinations.

    B. Infections will increase the pulse rate approximately 10 beats per minute for each 0.5°C (1.0°F) temperature increase.

    C. When fever is present, the respiratory rate will frequently increase above the usual 12 to 14 breaths per minute.

    D. Infections with Mycoplasma pneumonia, psittacosis, and typhoid fever are often associated with a relative bradycardia.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: The 10-Minute Diagnosis Manual: Symptoms and Signs in the Time-Limited Encounter, 2000

    Rash Accompanied by Fever: History
    (The 10-Minute Diagnosis Manual: Symptoms and Signs in the Time-Limited Encounter)

    History is quite important and should include standard items, such as onset, duration, aggravating factors, relieving factors, and associated symptoms. Additionally, other factors to consider, include:

     A. Exposure history. Are any other family members or close contacts ill? Is there a history of exposure to brackish water, mosquitoes, foreign travel, and so forth?

    B. Are there any underlying illnesses or a significant possibility of immunologic compromise (e.g., undiagnosed HIV infection)?

    Physical examination

    A. Examine the lesions and their distribution carefully. Classify the rash as petechial, maculopapular, vesiculobullous, erythematous, or urticarial. Note the distribution of the rash. For instance, rubella and rubeola generally begin on the face and spread to the trunk, whereas RMSF petechiae tend to occur on the ankles and wrists first.

     B. Conduct a general physical examination. Areas of particular concern are:

     1. Head, eyes, ears, nose, and throat. The presence of Koplik’s spots is pathognomic for rubeola. The discovery of a tick lends support to the diagnosis of RMSF. Sinusitis may represent a source for meningococcemia. Pharyngitis in a young adult with diffuse erythema may be caused by C. haemolyticum. Mucous membrane swelling may indicate early anaphylaxis.

     2. Lung examination. Expiratory wheezing, especially in a patient who has recently received medications or contrast dye, can indicate anaphylaxis. Evidence of pneumonia is consistent with psittacosis and mycoplasma.

     3. Cardiac examination. Cardiovascular collapse is associated with meningococcemia and other sepsis. A new murmur (Chapters 7.6 and 7.7) may indicate subacute bacterial endocarditis in a patient with subungual or scleral petechiae.

     4. Genital examination. Purulent urethral drainage or evidence of pelvic inflammatory disease supports consideration of gonorrhea. A chancre would support a diagnosis of syphilis, although palmar lesions often occur well after healing of the initial chancre.

     5. Joint examination and extremities. A petechial rash near the ankles and wrists is suggestive of RMSF. Evidence of joint swelling supports a diagnosis of meningococcemia or gonococcemia. A maculopapular rash may be seen in juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and other rheumatologic conditions as well.

    6. Neurologic examination. Evidence of meningitis supports a diagnosis of meningococcemia. Patients with RMSF may also have meningeal signs.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: The 10-Minute Diagnosis Manual: Symptoms and Signs in the Time-Limited Encounter, 2000

    Sore Throat: Differential Overview
    (Field Guide to Bedside Diagnosis)

    ❑ Rhinovirus

    ❑ Group A streptococci

    ❑ Ebstein-Barr virus

    ❑ Adenovirus

    ❑ Influenza

    ❑ Candida/thrush

    ❑ Herpes simplex virus

    ❑ Peritonsillar abscess

    ❑ Mycoplasma pneumoniae

    ❑ Coxsackievirus

    ❑ Primary HIV

    ❑ Neisseria gonorrhea

    ❑ Epiglottitis

    ❑ Corynebacterium diphtheriae

    ❑ Leukemia

    Diagnostic Approach

    The most important consideration is whether the patient has a group A strep infection because prompt treatment prevents rheumatic fever. The findings of fever, tender anterior cervical adenopathy, and tonsillar exudate can be combined to make the diagnosis more or less likely. Rapid antigen tests have a sensitivity of 80% to 90% and specificity of 95% to 100%, so give a reasonably accurate diagnosis. Because of limitations in sensitivity however, patients with a high suspicion on clinical grounds should have a backup culture taken.

     Prior probability in an adult population with sore throat is 5% to 10%, and in a pediatric population 20% to 25%. A prominent sore throat out of proportion to the degree of pharyngeal inflammation should raise the possibility of acute epiglottitis and acutely impending airway compromise. Persistent unilateral tonsillar enlargement in a young adult without sore throat should raise the suspicion of lymphoma.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Field Guide to Bedside Diagnosis, 2007

    Fever of Unknown Origin: Differential Overview
    (Field Guide to Bedside Diagnosis)

    Infection

    ❑ HIV

    ❑ Tuberculosis

    ❑ Endocarditis

    ❑ Osteomyelitis

    ❑ Malaria

    ❑ Syphilis

    ❑ Zoonosis

    ❑ Typhoid fever

    ❑ Chronic meningococcemia

    Neoplasm

    ❑ Lymphoma

    ❑ Liver metastases

    ❑ Renal cell carcinoma

    ❑ Atrial myxoma

    Collagen-Vascular Disease

    ❑ Giant cell arteritis

    ❑ Systemic lupus erythematosus

    ❑ Vasculitis

    ❑ Rheumatic fever

    ❑ Still disease

    Other

    ❑ Drugs

    ❑ Heat stroke

    ❑ Factitious

    ❑ Malignant hyperthermia

    ❑ Multiple pulmonary emboli

    Diagnostic Approach

    Fever of unknown origin (FUO), when a fever over 101°F (38.5°C) remains unexplained for longer than 3 weeks, is usually a result of infection (40%), neoplasm (20%), or collagen-vascular disease (20%). It is most commonly caused by an atypical presentation of a common disease. Always document the fever before pursuing the evaluation.

    Consider relatively hidden (deep) sites: retroperitoneum (hematoma or infection), bone, dental, sinus, ovary, prostate, subphrenic (following abdominal surgery), renal, spleen, or prostheses. With FUO in a hospitalized patient, consider sequestered sites (e.g., sinuses in intubated patients or implanted hardware), indwelling lines, C. difficile, or drug reactions. With FUO in a neutropenic patient, consider catheters, perianal infections, Candida, and Aspergillus. Cardinal signs may be absent, e.g., meningitis with opportunistic pathogens without meningismus in 63%, and pneumonia without purulent sputum in 92%. Neutropenic fevers are usually due to bacteremia, with fungal organisms becoming predominant after 7 days of unremitting fever. Fever may also be due to the underlying neoplasm, drugs such as antibiotics, or blood products.

    Examine for subtle clues:

    • Petechial eruptions in meningococcemia and Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever

    • Pustular lesions in gonococcemia or staphylococcal sepsis

    • Ecthyma gangrenosum in Pseudomonas sepsis

    • Splinter hemorrhages, conjunctival hemorrhages, Roth spots, Osler nodes, and Janeway lesions in endocarditis

    • Choroidal tubercles in miliary tuberculosis and candidemia

    • Splenomegaly in endocarditis, lymphoma, and cirrhosis

    • Hepatic bruit or friction rub in subphrenic abscess

    • Temporal artery or scalp tenderness or jaw claudication in giant cell arteritis

    • Epitrochlear lymphadenopathy in syphilis

    Extreme elevations of fever (.40°C) are found in heat stroke, hypothalamic dysfunction, meningitis, midbrain hemorrhage, falciparum malaria, Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever, typhus, sepsis, malignant hyperthermia, and hypernephroma.

    Relative bradycardia occurs in salmonellosis (typhoid fever), meningitis with increased intracranial pressure, mycoplasma and legionella pneumonia, factitious fever, tularemia, brucellosis, mumps, hepatitis, and with concomitant beta blockers. Bradycardia in fever may also signal cardiac conduction abnormalities in acute rheumatic fever, Lyme disease, viral myocarditis, or endocarditis with valve ring abscess.

    Relapsing fevers (days of fever alternating with days without) occur in brucellosis (fever with physical activity), Hodgkin disease, extrapulmonary tuberculosis, malaria, and Lyme disease. Hectic fever (difference between peak and trough .1.5°C) suggests abscess, pyelonephritis, ascending cholangitis, tuberculosis, lymphoma, and drug reactions. Absence of diurnal variation suggests a central source. Reversal of the diurnal pattern (“typhus inversus”) occurs with disseminated tuberculosis, typhoid fever, polyarteritis nodosa, and salicylate toxicity.

    FUO in patients from the developing world include tuberculosis, typhoid, amebic liver abscesses, AIDS, and geographically restricted infections such as malaria, schistosomiasis, brucellosis, kala azar, filariasis, or Lassa fever. They may present after long incubation or latency periods.

    When FUO lasts longer than 6 months, consider factitious fever, granulomatous hepatitis, neoplasm, Still disease, infection, collagen-vascular disease, or exaggerated circadian rhythm.

    Patients who remain undiagnosed have a good prognosis (83% resolution in 1 year, 4% mortality).

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Field Guide to Bedside Diagnosis, 2007

    Haemophilus influenzae infection: Diagnosis
    (Handbook of Diseases)

    Isolation of the organism, usually with a culture, confirms H. influenzae infection. Other laboratory findings include:

    ❑ polymorphonuclear leukocytosis (15,000 to 30,000/µl)

    ❑ leukopenia (2,000 to 3,000/µl) in young children with severe infection

    ❑ H. influenzae bacteremia, found frequently in patients with meningitis.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Handbook of Diseases, 2003

    Rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease: Diagnosis
    (Handbook of Diseases)

    Recognition of one or more classic signs or symptoms (carditis, polyarthritis, chorea, erythema marginatum, or subcutaneous nodules) and a detailed patient history allow diagnosis. The following laboratory data support the diagnosis:

    ❑ White blood cell count and erythrocyte sedimentation rate may be elevated (during the acute phase); blood studies show slight anemia from suppressed erythropoiesis during inflammation.

    ❑ C-reactive protein is positive (especially during the acute phase).

    ❑ Cardiac enzyme levels may be increased in those with severe carditis.

    ❑ Antistreptolysin O titer is elevated in 95% of patients within 2 months of onset. (Rising antiDNase B test results can also detect recurrent streptococcal infection.)

    ❑ Electrocardiography changes aren’t diagnostic, but the PR interval is prolonged in 20% of patients.

    ❑ Chest X-rays show normal heart size (except with myocarditis, heart failure, or pericardial effusion).

    ❑ Echocardiography helps evaluate valvular damage, chamber size, and ventricular function.

    ❑ Cardiac catheterization evaluates valvular damage and left ventricular function in those with severe cardiac dysfunction.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Handbook of Diseases, 2003

    Influenza: Diagnosis
    (Handbook of Diseases)

    At the beginning of an influenza epidemic, early cases are usually mistaken for other respiratory disorders. Because signs and symptoms aren’t pathognomonic, isolation of M. influenzae through the inoculation of chicken embryos (with nasal secretions from infected patients) is essential at the first sign of an epidemic. Nose and throat cultures and increased serum antibody titers help confirm this diagnosis.

    After these measures confirm an influenza epidemic, diagnosis requires only observation of clinical signs and symptoms. Uncomplicated cases show a decreased white blood cell count with an increased lymphocyte count.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Handbook of Diseases, 2003

    Fever: History
    (Alarming Signs and Symptoms: Lippincott Manual of Nursing Practice Series)

    If the patient’s fever is mild to moderate, ask him when it began and how high his temperature reached. Did the fever disappear, only to reappear later? Did he experience any other symptoms, such as chills, fatigue, or pain?

    Obtain a complete medical history, noting immunosuppressive treatments or disorders, infection, trauma, surgery, diagnostic testing, and use of anesthesia or other medications. Ask about recent travel because certain diseases are endemic.

    Physical examination

    Let the history findings direct your physical examination. Because fever can accompany diverse disorders, the examination may range from a brief evaluation of one body system to a comprehensive review of all systems. (See How fever develops, pages 148.) Assess vital signs and evaluate the patient for complications related to the fever such as dehydration, body aches, fatigue, anorexia, and seizure activity.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Alarming Signs and Symptoms: Lippincott Manual of Nursing Practice Series, 2007

    Fever: History
    (Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses)

    If the patient’s fever is only mild to moderate, ask him when it began and how high his temperature reached. Did the fever disappear, only to reappear later? Did he experience other symptoms, such as chills, fatigue, or pain?

    Obtain a complete medical history, noting especially immunosuppressive treatments or disorders, infection, trauma, surgery, diagnostic testing, and use of anesthesia or other medications. Ask about recent travel because certain diseases are endemic.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses, 2007

    Fever: Clinical Features and Diagnosis: Acute Fever
    (The Diagnostic Approach to Symptoms and Signs in Pediatrics)

    Common Causes

    Infectious

    Infectious causes of acute fever are listedbelow and discussed in other chapters.

  • Respiratorytract

  • Upperrespiratory tract infection (common cold)
  • Pharyngitis
  • Tonsillitis
  • Otitis media
  • Herpes gingivostomatitis
  • Herpangina
  • Sinusitis
  • Croup
  • Bronchiolitis
  • Bronchitis
  • Pneumonia (viral, bacterial, mycoplasma)
  • Pertussis
  • Gastrointestinal

  • Gastroenteritis
  • Appendicitis
  • Hepatitis
  • Genitourinary

  • Urinary tract infection (includingpyelonephritis)
  • Sexually transmitted diseases
  • Musculoskeletal

  • Septic arthritis
  • Osteomyelitis
  • Myositis
  • Central nervous system

  • Meningitis(viral, bacterial)
  • Viral encephalitis
  • Infections associated with prominentrash

  • Roseola
  • Hand-foot-mouth syndrome
  • Varicella
  • Erythema infectiosum (parvovirus B19)
  • Measles
  • Scarlet fever
  • Meningococcemia
  • Rocky Mountain spotted fever
  • Other

  • Viral illnesses
  • Septicemia/bacteremia
  • Infectious mononucleosis
  • Lymphadenitis
  • Cellulitis/abscess
  • Cat scratch disease
  • Dental abscess
  • Periorbital cellulites
  • Parotitis

    • Noninfectious

    Drug Reactions

  • Hypersensitivityreactions are responsible for most cases of drug fever.
  • Although fever can occur without otherfindings, urticarial rash and peripheral eosinophilia make diagnosismore likely.

    • Vaccine Reactions

  • Reactionsto acellular pertussis vaccine can produce fever but are uncommon.
  • Within 7–10 days after administrationof live measles vaccine or measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) vaccine,fever can occur and is often associated with macular or papular rash.

    • Trauma

    Crush injuries and fractures of large bonescan cause fever due to large amount of tissue damage and releaseof inflammatory mediators.

    Burns

    Fever may occur with severe burns, even inabsence of infection, because of fluid losses and resetting of thermoregulatorycenter. Severe sunburn also may cause fever.

    Kawasaki Disease

  • Definedas vasculitis of unknown cause that usually occurs in children <5yrs of age.
  • Diagnostic criteria are absence ofany other disease process and presence of fever for ≥5 days associatedwith 4 of 5 signs:

  • Bilateral conjunctival injection
  • Cervical lymphadenopathy
  • Macular or papular rash primarily ontrunk
  • Mucous membrane involvement with dry,fissured lips, strawberry tongue, or pharyngeal injection
  • ≥1 change in extremities, includingpalmar erythema, edema, and periungal or generalized desquamation
  • Lab findings include leukocytosis,pyuria, proteinuria, spinal fluid pleocytosis, elevation in serumaminotransferases, and increased erythrocyte sedimentation rate.
  • Chest radiograph may show small pleuraleffusions.
  • Platelet count may be normal at onset,but thrombocytosis usually occurs during second week of illness.
  • Complications include coronary arteryaneurysms, myocarditis, and myocardial infarction.
  • 2-D echocardiography may reveal coronaryartery aneurysms within 1–2 cm of origin of coronary arteriesfrom aorta.

    • Uncommon Causes

    Infectious

    Many infections in this category, as listedbelow, are discussed in other chapters.

  • Respiratorytract

  • Viral(hantavirus pulmonary syndrome)
  • Bacterial [supraglottitis,bacterial tracheitis, abscess (peritonsillar, retropharyngeal, lateral pharyngeal),tuberculosis, actinomycosis, nocardiasis, Legionella]
  • Fungal (aspergillosis, blastomycosis,histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis)
  • Parasitic (P. carinii)
  • Gastrointestinal

  • Amebiasis
  • Pancreatitis
  • Cholecystitis
  • Cholangitis
  • Peritonitis
  • Intraabdominal abscess
  • Genitourinary

  • Epididymitis
  • Orchitis
  • Abscesses (perinephric, tuboovarian)
  • Cardiac

  • Acute rheumatic fever
  • Myocarditis
  • Pericarditis
  • Endocarditis
  • Central nervous system (brain abscess)
  • Other

  • Viral (HIV, rabies)
  • Bacterial [staphylococcalscalded skin syndrome, toxic shock syndrome, orbital cellulitis/abscess,Borrelia (relapsing fever), brucellosis, leptospirosis, plague,psittacosis (ornithosis), rat-bite fever, syphilis, tularemia, tetanus]
  • Fungal (disseminated histoplasmosis,nonpulmonary blastomycosis)
  • Parasitic [malaria, ascariasis,toxocariasis (visceral larva migrans, ocular larva migrans), toxoplasmosis,trichinosis]
  • Rickettsial [endemic typhus(murine), epidemic typhus (louse-borne typhus), Q fever, rickettsialpox, ehrlichiosis]

    • Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome

  • Can occurafter exposure to infected rodents (most commonly, deer mouse),their saliva, or excreta.
  • Characterized by acute onset of fever,headache, myalgia, cough, vomiting, and diarrhea followed by developmentof hypotension and noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. Leukocytosiswith immature granulocytes, thrombocytopenia, and elevated Hct arefrequent findings.
  • Reverse-transcriptase polymerase chainreaction or enzyme immunoassay can detect viral antigen from clinicalsamples. Diagnosis also can be confirmed serologically.

    • Borrelia (Relapsing Fever)

  • Caused byspirochetes of Borrelia. Infected ticks (Ornithodoros species) andlice (P. humanus) are sources of human infections. Most cases inU.S. are transmitted by ticks, which become infected by feedingon rodents and other small mammals.
  • Incubation period of 7–10days is followed by fever, headache, chills, myalgia, and arthralgia,which may last up to 1 wk. Transient macular rash, petechiae ofskin, jaundice, and hepatosplenomegaly may occur.
  • Complications include pneumonia, myocarditis,and meningitis. After 5- to 10-day interval, relapse occurs withfever and same clinical findings as described above.
  • Spirochetes can be seen by dark-fieldmicroscopy and in Wright-stained smears of peripheral blood. Positiveblood culture is also diagnostic.

    • Brucellosis

  • Transmittedby direct contact with infected animals (goats, sheep, cows, swine)or by ingestion of contaminated milk or milk products produced bythem.
  • Onset can be acute or insidious, withfever, headache, abdominal pain, arthralgia, myalgia, weight loss,lymphadenopathy (especially cervical and axillary), and hepatosplenomegaly.Prolonged fever without any other findings sometimes occurs.
  • Complications include meningitis, osteomyelitis,and endocarditis.
  • Organism can sometimes be culturedfrom blood, urine, spinal fluid, bone marrow, or lymph node. Ifthese cultures are negative, diagnosis depends on serologic findings.Serum agglutination test with antibody titer ≥1:160 or 4-foldincrease in agglutination titer on serial samples is diagnostic.

    • Leptospirosis

  • L. interrogansinfects humans through contact with animal urine in contaminated foodor water. Incubation period is 2–20 days.
  • Acute illness usually consists of fever,headache, chills, malaise, myalgia, vomiting, lymphadenopathy, andabdominal pain. Hepatic (hepatomegaly, jaundice, liver failure),renal (azotemia, renal failure), and CNS dysfunction (aseptic meningitis,alteration in consciousness) may follow.
  • Diagnosis confirmed by positive blood,urine, or spinal fluid cultures; 4-fold increase in serial agglutinationtiters; or visualization of spirochete by dark-field microscopyof urine.

    • Plague

  • Y. pestisis responsible for plague. Most common form is bubonic plague, whichis usually transmitted by bites of infected fleas and uncommonlyby contact with infected tissues and fluids of wild rodents (e.g.,prairie dogs, ground squirrels, chipmunks, hares, rabbits, and rats).
  • Characterized by fever and painfulregional adenopathy, usually involving cervical, inguinal, or axillarylymph nodes (buboes).
  • Less common forms include pneumonicplague (cough, fever, dyspnea, hemoptysis), septicemic plague (fever,hypotension, coagulopathy), and meningeal plague (fever, headache,photophobia, seizures).
  • Positive fluorescent antibody testof sputum, lymph node aspirate, blood, or spinal fluid is presumptiveevidence of infection. Serologic tests also may confirm diagnosis.Positive sputum, lymph node, blood, or spinal fluid cultures aredefinitive.

    • Psittacosis (Ornithosis)

  • C. psittacicauses psittacosis, which is transmitted from parrots and otherrelated species (parakeets, finches, cockatoos), and ornithosis,which is acquired from turkeys, pigeons, ducks, chickens, and otherfowl. Transmission is by inhalation of organisms from infected bird'senvironment. Incubation period is usually 1–2 wks.
  • Affected individuals have acute respiratorytract infection with fever and nonproductive cough.
  • Chest radiograph usually shows interstitialpneumonia. Usual method of diagnosis is serologic, with 4-fold increasein complement fixation antibody titer. With compatible clinicalpicture, single complement fixation titer ≥1:32 is also considereddiagnostic.

    • Rat-Bite Fever

  • May followrodent bite, usually that of rat.
  • 2 different organisms, S. moniliformis,which is more common in U.S., and S. minus, which is more commonin Japan, can cause this infection.
  • Clinical features include fever, chills,headache, muscle pain, and rash (macular, papular, or petechial).
  • Migratory polyarthritis/arthralgiasoccur in some cases of S. moniliformis infection. Complicationsinclude pneumonia, meningitis, myocarditis, pericarditis, endocarditis,and soft tissue or solid organ abscesses. Positive culture fromsite of bite, blood, or joint fluid confirms diagnosis.
  • With S. minus infection, the bite maybe followed by ulceration, lymphadenopathy, and rash composed ofpurple or red plaques. Diagnosis of S. minus may be confirmed byobservation of organisms by dark-field microscopy in wet mountsof blood, exudate of lesion, and lymph nodes.

    • Syphilis

  • T. pallidumcauses syphilis, which may be congenital or acquired. See Chap. 36, Jaundice, fordiscussion of congenital syphilis.
  • Acquired syphilis almost always occursby sexual transmission.
  • Incubation period is 10–90days.
  • In primary stage, ≥1 painless ulcer(chancres) occurs on skin or mucous membranes at site of inoculation,usually on genitalia.
  • During secondary stage, which occurs1–2 mos later, generalized macular or papular rash appears,usually involving palms and soles. Fever, malaise, headache, arthralgia,generalized adenopathy, splenomegaly, and condyloma lata also canoccur.
  • Tertiary stage occurs several yearsto decades later and is characterized by aortitis or gummatous changesof skin, bones, or viscera.
  • Neurosyphilis can occur at any stage.
  • Nontreponemal reagin antibody test(rapid plasma reagin card test) and VDRL slide test, which measureimmunoglobulins directed against cardiolipin antigen, are usefulscreening tests.
  • Any positive test result should beconfirmed by 1 treponemal test.
  • Specific treponemal antibody serologictests include fluorescent treponemal antibody absorption test (FTA-ABS),which usually remains positive for life, even with successful therapy.
  • Microscopic dark-field exam of lesionscraping or lymph node aspirate that shows spirochetes or positivedirect fluorescent antibody test of lesion exudate or tissue isalso diagnostic.
  • Diagnosis of CNS involvement is establishedby positive CSF VDRL or FTA-ABS tests. CSF pleocytosis and increasedCSF protein concentration also may be found.

    • Tularemia

  • Source ofinfection with F. tularensis is infected animal or carcass, usuallyrabbit. Infection is acquired by ingestion of contaminated meator water, handling infected animals, or bites by dog ticks or deerflies that have come into contact with infected animal.
  • Fever, chills, headache, and myalgiaare usual findings. Common presentation is ulceroglandular syndromewith painful, swollen, ulcerating papule and inflamed lymph nodesthat may drain spontaneously.
  • Other syndromes are glandular (absenceof skin or mucous membrane involvement); oculoglandular (conjunctivitisand preauricular lymph node involvement); oropharyngeal (exudativepharyngitis); typhoidal (fever and hepatosplenomegaly); and pneumonic(cough).
  • Positive culture or 4-fold increasein serum agglutinin titer is diagnostic.

    • Malaria

  • Sporozoaof genus Plasmodium cause malaria, which occurs in many tropicaland subtropical countries. Bite by infected female Anopheles mosquitotransmits infection. 4 known types of malaria are caused by differentspecies and have the following incubation periods:

  • P. falciparum,9–14 days
  • P. vivax, 12–17 days
  • P. ovale, 16–18 days
  • P. malariae, 18–40 days
  • P. falciparum and P. vivax infectionsare most common, whereas P. falciparum infection is most serious.Mixed infections with more than 1 type also occur.
  • Typical symptoms are fever with chills,sweats, and headache. Fever usually occurs every other day withP. vivax, P. falciparum, and P. ovale infections, and every thirdday with P. malariae infection. Vomiting, diarrhea, cough, and abdominalpain are other manifestations. Significant hemolysis produces pallorand jaundice. Hepatosplenomegaly may occur with chronic infection.
  • Clinical syndromes that may occur withP. falciparum infection include

  • Febrile illness without specific or localizingsigns
  • Severe anemia
  • Respiratory failure ħ pulmonaryedema
  • Renal failure secondary to acute tubularnecrosis
  • Cerebral malaria with seizures andalteration of consciousness
  • Vascular collapse and shock associatedwith adrenal insufficiency
  • P. vivax and P. ovale may cause anemiaand hypersplenism, whereas nephrotic syndrome may be associatedwith P. malariae infection. Any type can cause congenital malaria,which is characterized by fever, irritability, and lethargy.
  • Analysis of thick and thin blood smearsusing Wright or Giemsa stain identifies parasite and confirms diagnosis.

    • Ascariasis

  • Infectionwith roundworm A. lumbricoides is usually asymptomatic, but diarrhea, vomiting,and abdominal pain sometimes occur. Larval migration through lungcan cause transient pneumonitis associated with fever and eosinophilia.
  • Adult worms, which are whitish brownin color and 15–30 cm (males) or 20–40 cm (females)long, sometimes pass through rectum.
  • Identification of ova by microscopicidentification of stool or adult worm is diagnostic.

    • Toxocariasis (Visceral Larva Migrans, Ocular Larva Migrans)

  • Dog roundwormT. canis and cat roundworm T. cati cause toxocariasis.
  • Ingestion of infective eggs from soilcauses human infection, which is most common in toddlers.
  • Although infection can be asymptomatic,with eosinophilia as its only manifestation, other findings includefever, cough, macular or papular rash, and hepatosplenomegaly. Pneumonia,myocarditis, and encephalitis are rare complications. Ocular invasionusually occurs without other evidence of infection.
  • Enzyme immunoassay for serum Toxocaraantibodies available through CDC is both sensitive and specificfor visceral larva migrans and less sensitive for ocular larva migrans.Liver biopsy also may detect larvae, but yield is low.

    • Trichinosis

  • Infectionwith nematode T. spiralis is acquired by eating undercooked meat(usually pork) containing encysted larvae.
  • Fever, diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominalpain follow in 1–7 days. During next 2–8 wks,fever, myalgia, urticarial rash, and hemorrhages (conjunctival andsubungual) may develop. Eosinophilia as high as 70% alsomay occur. Most serious complication is myocarditis.
  • Identification of larvae in suspectmeat is fastest way to diagnose. Diagnosis also can be made by visualizinglarvae in muscle biopsy or by increase in paired acute and convalescentantibody titers.

    • Endemic Typhus (Murine)

  • Murine typhuscaused by R. mooseri is primarily infection of rats. Transmissionto humans occurs by bite of infected rat or inhalation of infectedrat excreta 1–2 wks after exposure. Infection occurs insoutheastern U.S. and is more common during summer months.
  • Fever, headache, and myalgia are usualfindings. Macular or papular rash occurs about 1 wk into illness,which lasts 2–3 wks.
  • Diagnosis is usually confirmed by serologictests.

    • Epidemic Typhus (Louse-Borne Typhus)

  • Humans areonly known reservoir of R. prowsekii, which causes epidemic typhus.
  • Infection is transmitted by infectedbody louse feces, usually through skin abrasion. Crowding, poorpersonal hygiene, and poverty are factors that contribute to itsoccurrence.
  • Usual incubation period is 1–2wks.
  • Begins with sudden onset of fever,chills, headache, and myalgia. Macular or papular rash appears in3–7 days and is followed by petechial or hemorrhagic rash.Face, palms, and soles are usually spared. In severe cases pneumonia,renal failure, and alteration in consciousness may occur.
  • Diagnosis may be confirmed by isolationof organism, visualization of rickettsiae in tissues, detectingrickettsiae by polymerase chain reaction, or by serologic testing.

    • Q Fever

  • Caused byC. burnetii, which infects cattle, sheep, goats, and rodents.
  • Human infection follows inhalationof infected dust from exposure to hides or products of conceptionof these animals.
  • Incubation period is 10–20days.
  • Acute onset of fever, chills, headache,and weakness are characteristic. Hepatosplenomegaly and weight lossoften occur. Persistent cough may signify pneumonia. High, spikingfever may continue for 1–3 wks, with gradual resolution.Major manifestations of chronic disease are hepatitis and endocarditis.
  • Immunofluorescence, complement fixation,enzyme immunoassay, and immune adherence hemagglutination antibodytests are used diagnostically.

    • Rickettsial Pox

  • Definedas mild illness caused by R. akari.
  • House mice harbor this organism, whichis transmitted to humans by mites.
  • Incubation period is 2–7 daysfollowing attachment of infected mite.
  • Mite bite produces red papule, whichforms vesicle that ulcerates. Fever, headache, chills, sweats, myalgia,and papular/vesicular eruption follow in 1–3 days.
  • During acute stage, organism may beisolated from blood. Serologic tests are also diagnostic.

    • Ehrlichiosis

  • Consistsof at least 2 distinct diseases: human monocytic ehrlichiosis causedby E. chaffeensis and human granulocytic ehrlichiosis caused byan unnamed Ehrlichia species. Both are transmitted by tick vectors.
  • Both resemble Rocky Mountain spottedfever, with fever, headache, malaise, chills, and myalgia. Macularor papular rash that occasionally can be petechial occurs commonlywith monocytic form and rarely with granulocytic form.
  • Lab findings include anemia, thrombocytopenia,increased liver aminotransferases, and CSF pleocytosis with predominanceof lymphocytes.
  • Diagnosis may be confirmed by serologicmethods or by polymerase chain reaction of DNA from a clinical sample.

    • Noninfectious

    Many uncommon noninfectious causes, as listedbelow, are discussed in other chapters.

  • Respiratory

  • Pulmonaryinfarction
  • Pulmonary embolism
  • Gastrointestinal

  • Intestinal obstruction
  • Inflammatory bowel disease
  • Cardiac (postpericardiotomy syndrome)
  • Hematologic

  • Intravascular hemolysis
  • Bleeding into closed space
  • Endocrine

  • Thyrotoxicosis
  • Diabetes insipidus
  • Central nervous system

  • Intracranialinjury and hemorrhage
  • Spinal cord injury
  • Hypothalamic and brain stem lesions
  • Status epilepticus
  • Neoplasia

  • Leukemia
  • Lymphoma
  • Neuroblastoma
  • Pheochromocytoma
  • Connective tissue disorders

  • Juvenile rheumatoidarthritis
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus
  • Polyarteritis nodosa
  • Polymyositis
  • Dermatomyositis
  • Mixed connective tissue disease
  • Poisonings

  • Atropine
  • Cocaine
  • Salicylate
  • Lysergic acid diethylamide
  • Hydrocarbons
  • Organophosphates
  • Tricyclic antidepressants
  • Amphetamines
  • Phenothiazines
  • Other

  • Spider bites (black widow, brown recluse)
  • Stevens-Johnson syndrome
  • Heat-related illness
  • Serum sickness
  • Anhidrotic ectodermal dysplasia
  • Familial dysautonomia
  • Sarcoidosis
  • Familial Mediterranean fever
  • Factitious fever

    • Central Nervous System

  • Increasedtemperature may occur with intraventricular hemorrhage as well assubdural hematoma or effusion. CT is diagnostic.
  • Absence of effective control mechanismsof temperature regulation sometimes results from spinal cord injury.In such cases, significant increase in environmental temperatureproduces hyperpyrexia.
  • Any hypothalamic or brainstem lesionmay damage hypothalamic temperature-regulating center and producehyperpyrexia. Hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy and brain tumors arecommon examples.
  • Prolonged status epilepticus may resultin autonomic changes with associated increase in temperature.

    • Neoplasia

    Fever in children with cancer usually occursbecause of underlying disease process, infection, or effects oftreatment. Important factor in determining risk of serious infection,especially bacterial infection, is neutropenia (absolute neutrophilcount <500 cells/mm3).

    Other

    Spider Bites

  • Bite ofbrown recluse spider (L. reclusa) can cause severe local reaction,with fever, pain, and swelling followed by blister formation andnecrosis. Spider is brown, 10–15 mm long, with 6 eyes arrangedin an arc.
  • Female black widow spider (L. mactans)has red ventral spot and variable red dorsal spots. Usual lengthis about 2 cm, and bite produces twin red fang marks in skin. Injectionof venom produces pain and swelling at site of bite. Vomiting, fever,and intense abdominal pain may occur within 30 mins.
  • History and identification of spiderconfirm diagnosis.

    • Serum Sickness

  • Occurs 1–2wks after exposure to animal serum (e.g., diphtheria antitoxin;botulism antitoxin types A, B, and E; and antivenoms for snake orspider bites). Accelerated reaction may occur within 1–5days in individuals who have had previous exposure.
  • Clinical manifestations include fever;macular, papular, erythematous, or urticarial rash; localized orgeneralized adenopathy; hepatosplenomegaly; vomiting; abdominalpain; arthralgia or arthritis; and generalized edema. Usually self-limitedillness and lasting few days to few weeks.

    • Factitious Fever

    Sometimes parent or guardian fabricates andreports persistent fever in child. Clues to this diagnosis are

  • Lack oftachycardia, flushing, sweating, or warm skin at time of fever
  • Rapid appearance and disappearanceof high fever in child who is otherwise well
  • Absence of fever when nurse or physiciantakes temperature
  • Wide discrepancy between oral and rectaltemperatures when taken simultaneously.
    • In any of these situations, consider Munchausensyndrome by proxy.

    Diagnostic Approach: Acute Fever

  • Most acutefevers are caused by infection, usually viral or bacterial.
  • Common infections should be consideredbefore less common ones, unless clinical findings suggest otherwise.
  • Best guide to accurate diagnosis ishistory and physical exam.

    • Clinical Findings

  • Age of child,height of fever, compromised host defenses, and associated findings (e.g.,rash, painful extremity, abdominal pain, jaundice, generalized lymphadenopathy,hepatomegaly, or splenomegaly) are important factors in diagnosisof any child who presents with fever.
  • Important historical information includesany history of contact with other ill individuals, foreign travel,previous immunizations, drug exposure, history of pica, and exposureto animals or birds.

  • History of pica suggests toxoplasmosis or toxocariasis(visceral larva migrans).
  • History of tick exposure suggests RockyMountain spotted fever, relapsing fever, or Lyme disease.
  • History of exposure to animals or birdssuggests diseases caused by rats (plague, rat-bite fever, leptospirosis);hamsters (lymphocytic choriomeningitis encephalitis); rabbits (tularemia);cattle, goats, and dogs (brucellosis); cats (cat scratch disease,toxoplasmosis); and birds (psittacosis).

    • Age

  • Risk ofserious bacterial illness (e.g., septicemia and meningitis) varieswith age and is greatest during immediate neonatal period, especiallyin premature infants.
  • Clinical findings may be nonspecific,including poor feeding, decreased activity, fever, or hypothermia.
  • In such infants, CBC with differentialand blood, urine, and spinal fluid cultures should be performed.
  • Gram-stained smear of spinal fluidshould be performed and antigen studies considered.
  • Chest radiograph should be performedwith history of respiratory symptoms.
  • Stool culture should be performed withhistory of diarrhea.

    • Height of Fever

  • In infants,incidence of serious bacterial infection is higher in those withrectal temperature >41°C compared with those withlower temperature.
  • Preschool and school-aged childrenoften have high fever that persists for several days and is notassociated with localizing findings. Such children do not appearvery ill and usually have self-limited viral infections.
  • Continued observation with close follow-upusually clarifies many of these problems.
  • Whatever the height of fever, assessmentof toxicity and level of functioning is crucial in diagnosis andmanagement.

    • Compromised Host Defenses

    Children with impaired host defenses dueto primary or secondary immunodeficiency disorders are at risk fordevelopment of serious infection caused by wide range of infectiveagents, including bacteria (S. aureus, gram-negative enteric organisms),viruses (cytomegalovirus, VZV), protozoa (P. carinii), and fungi(Candida and Aspergillus species).

    Associated Physical Findings

    Fever and Rash

  • Macularor papular rashes occur with viral infection (enteroviruses, herpesvirus6, measles virus, rubella virus, parvovirus B19, Epstein-Barr virus),bacterial infection (scarlet fever, meningococcemia, toxic shocksyndrome, typhoid fever, rat bite fever, leptospirosis), rickettsialinfection (Rocky Mountain spotted fever), Kawasaki disease, anddrug reactions (most commonly penicillins and sulfonamides).
  • Erythematous rashes occur with viralinfection (parvovirus B19), bacterial infection (scarlet fever,toxic shock syndrome, staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome), Kawasakidisease, and reactions to same drugs causing macular or papularrashes.
  • Petechial and purpuric rashes occurwith congenital viral infection (rubella virus, cytomegalovirus),other viral infection (enteroviruses, Epstein-Barr virus, arboviruses),bacterial infection (group A Streptococcus, N. meningitidis, S.pneumoniae, N. gonorrhoeae, S. aureus, H. influenzae type b, P. aeruginosaand other gram-negative enteric bacteria), rickettsial infection(Rocky Mountain spotted fever), and parasitic infection (toxoplasmosis).
  • Vesicular rashes occur with viral infection(herpes simplex virus, varicella-virus infection, enteroviruses)and bacterial infection (bullous impetigo, staphylococcal scaldedskin syndrome).
  • See Chap.60, Skin Lesions and Rashes.

    • Fever and Painful Extremity

  • Infectiousor inflammatory causes

  • Cellulitis
  • Septic arthritis
  • Osteomyelitis
  • Transient synovitis
  • Skin/soft tissue abscess
  • Thrombophlebitis
  • Acute rheumatic fever
  • Vaccine immunization
  • Other causes

  • Neoplasia (leukemia, osteogenic sarcoma,Ewing sarcoma, metastatic neuroblastoma)
  • Collagen vascular disease (juvenilerheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus)
  • Kawasaki disease
  • Serum sickness
  • Arthritis associated with inflammatorybowel disease
  • See Chap.37, Limp.

    • Fever and Abdominal Pain

  • Infectiousand inflammatory causes

  • Nonspecific viral illness
  • Gastroenteritis
  • Urinary tract infection
  • Pneumonia
  • Appendicitis
  • Intraabdominal abscess
  • Hepatitis
  • Peritonitis
  • Cholecystitis
  • Cholangitis
  • IBD
  • Pelvic inflammatory disease
  • Pancreatitis
  • Generalized vasculitis
  • Other causes

  • Neoplasia (leukemia, Hodgkin disease,non-Hodgkin lymphoma, neuroblastoma, hepatic malignancies)
  • Diabetic ketoacidosis
  • Black widow spider bite
  • See Chap.2, Abdominal Pain.

    • Fever and Jaundice

  • Most commoncause of fever and unconjugated hyperbilirubinemia in neonates is septicemia.Causes of fever and conjugated hyperbilirubinemia in neonates include

  • Viral infection(rubella virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, VZV, enteroviruses,hepatitis B virus)
  • Bacterial infection (septicemia, syphilis)
  • In infancy and childhood, fever andconjugated hyperbilirubinemia may be due to

  • Viral infection (hepatitis A, B, C,D, E; enteroviruses; herpes simplex virus; Epstein-Barr virus; cytomegalovirus
  • Bacterial infection (septicemia, cholecystitis,cholangitis, liver abscess, leptospirosis, brucellosis)
  • Rickettsial infection (Q fever)
  • Fungal infection (histoplasmosis)
  • Parasitic infection (amebiasis, malaria,visceral larval migrans)
  • Drug reactions
  • Neoplasia (hepatic malignancies, non-Hodgkinlymphoma)
  • See Chap.36, Jaundice.

    • Fever and Generalized Lymphadenopathy

  • Infectiouscauses

  • Viralinfection (rubella virus, measles virus, Epstein-Barr virus, cytomegalovirus, VZV,hepatitis A virus, HIV)
  • Bacterial infection (pyogenic infectionfrom S. aureus, group A Streptococcus, H. influenzae type b, S.pneumoniae; tuberculosis; brucellosis; tularemia; salmonellosis;leptospirosis; syphilis)
  • Fungal infection (histoplasmosis)
  • Parasitic infection (toxoplasmosis,malaria)
  • Noninfectious causes

  • Neoplasia(leukemia, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, metastatic neuroblastoma)
  • Langerhans histiocytosis
  • Collagen vascular disease (juvenilerheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus)
  • Drug reactions
  • Serum sickness
  • Chronic granulomatous disease
  • Sarcoidosis
  • See Chap.38, Lymphadenopathy.

    • Fever with Hepatomegaly, Splenomegaly, or Hepatosplenomegaly

  • Causes offever and hepatomegaly

  • Hepatitis (A, B, C, D, E)
  • Primary liver abscess
  • Amebiasis
  • Primary liver malignancies
  • Causes of fever and splenomegaly

  • Viral infection(rubella virus, cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, enteroviruses, Epstein-Barrvirus)
  • Bacterial infection (septicemia, endocarditis,tularemia, plague, salmonellosis, splenic abscess)
  • Rickettsial infection (Rocky Mountainspotted fever)
  • Parasitic infection (malaria, toxoplasmosis)
  • Infectious causes of fever and hepatosplenomegaly

  • Viral infection(rubella virus; herpes simplex virus; cytomegalovirus; VZV; enteroviruses;Epstein-Barr virus; hepatitis A, B, C, D, E)
  • Bacterial infection (septicemia, endocarditis,brucellosis, tuberculosis, syphilis, leptospirosis, relapsing fever)
  • Fungal infection (histoplasmosis, coccidioidomycosis)
  • Parasitic infection (visceral larvalmigrans, toxoplasmosis, Chagas disease)
  • Other causes of fever and hepatosplenomegaly

  • Neoplasia(leukemia, Hodgkin disease, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, neuroblastoma)
  • Langerhans histiocytosis
  • Collagen vascular disease (juvenilerheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus)
  • See Chap.30, Hepatomegaly and Chap. 62, Splenomegaly.

    • Fever without Localizing Signs

  • Most childrenwith fever and no apparent focus of infection have self-limitedviral infection that resolves without treatment and has no sequelae.
  • Small percentage of children with acuteonset of fever ≥39°C and no localizing signs, especiallyat 3–36 mos, may have urinary tract infection, bacteremia,or meningitis.
  • In infants <1 mo of age, commoncauses of septicemia and meningitis are group B Streptococcus andgram-negative enteric bacteria, commonly E. coli. Much less commonis infection with L. monocytogenes.
  • At 1–3 mos of age, most commoncauses of septicemia and meningitis are S. pneumoniae, group B Streptococcus,and N. meningitidis.
  • In children >3 mos of age,S. pneumoniae, N. meningitidis, and Salmonella species (usually occurringwith gastroenteritis) cause most bacterial infections that occurwithout a focus.
  • Diagnostic and management approachto child with fever without apparent focus of infection dependson age, exposure history, usual pathogens, and severity of illness.
  • See references at end of chapter forfurther information.

    • Lab Findings

  • Lab tests(cultures and radiographs most commonly) are used to confirm diagnostic impressionof infection.
  • WBC and differential may suggest bacterialor viral infection, but they are not diagnostic. WBC count >20,000/mm3 withpredominance of neutrophils (>70%) or <5,000/mm3 withlarge number of band forms (>5%–10%)suggests bacterial infection. Although similar WBC counts sometimeoccur with viral infections, in such cases there is usually predominanceof lymphocytes and few band forms.
    • '>'>>>

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    Source: The Diagnostic Approach to Symptoms and Signs in Pediatrics, 2006

    Sore Throat: Clinical Features and Diagnosis
    (The Diagnostic Approach to Symptoms and Signs in Pediatrics)

    Infection

    Pharyngitis/Tonsillitis

    Viral

  • Severalviruses may cause pharyngitis/tonsillitis, including parainfluenzaviruses, influenza viruses, rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, and respiratorysyncytial virus. Coryza and cough predominate, whereas fever isvariable finding. Nasal wash cultures are diagnostic but usuallyunnecessary for management.
  • Enteroviruses also may cause sore throatand fever, especially in summer months, but tonsillar exudate isunusual.

  • Herpanginais characterized by fever and painful vesicular lesions on pharynxand tonsils.
  • Coxsackie A16 is major cause of hand-foot-mouthdisease, which is characterized by vesicular lesions in the mouthand on hands and feet.
  • Herpes simplex virus produces acutegingivostomatitis with fever and painful vesicles usually confinedto anterior mouth. However, lesions may extend to anterior tonsillarpillars.
  • Epstein-Barr virus is common causeof sore throat in adolescents. Other characteristic findings ofinfectious mononucleosis include fever, malaise, fatigue, cervicalor generalized lymphadenopathy, and hepatosplenomegaly. >10% atypicallymphocytes are usually seen on blood smear. Positive mono spottest, which identifies immunoglobulin M (IgM) heterophile antibody,is diagnostic. When this test is negative, IgG and IgM antibodyagainst viral capsid antigen (VCA) should be determined. Presenceof IgM-VCA is associated with recent or current illness and confirmsdiagnosis, whereas IgG-VCA is present continuously after acute infection.
  • Adenovirus may cause pharyngoconjunctivalfever. Follicular hyperplasia of tonsils and exudate may be seen.

    • Bacterial

    Group A Streptococcus

  • Most commonbacterial cause of pharyngitis/tonsillitis is group A Streptococcus.
  • Classic clinical presentation is school-agedchild with acute onset of fever and sore throat. Headache, abdominalpain, and vomiting also may occur. Rhinorrhea, cough, conjunctivitis,hoarseness, and diarrhea are unusual. Tonsils are enlarged and inflamed,with patches of exudate. Petechiae may sometimes be seen on palate.
  • Anterior cervical lymph nodes may beenlarged on 1 or both sides and are often tender.
  • Usual clinical dilemma is to distinguishbetween viral infection or group A streptococcal infection. Difficultto distinguish them clinically, except when typical erythematoussandpaper-like rash of scarlet fever occurs, which signifies infectionwith group A Streptococcus.
  • Rapid techniques are now availablefor detection of streptococcal antigen. Either rapid antigen testor throat culture should be performed if streptococcal pharyngitisis suspected. If antigen assay is negative, throat culture shouldbe obtained.

    • Other Bacteria

  • Pharyngitiscaused by group C or G Streptococcus is indistinguishable from that causedby group A Streptococcus.
  • A. hemolyticum produces illness similarto group A Streptococcus. Scarlet fever–like rash occursmost often in adolescents, but strawberry tongue and palatal petechiaehave not been described.
  • N. gonorrhoeae pharyngitis can occurin sexually active adolescents as consequence of oral-genital contact.Ulceration of pharynx and tonsils along with exudate may be seen.Its presence in younger children suggests sexual abuse.
  • M. pneumoniae is uncommon cause ofpharyngitis, whereas C. diphtheriae is rare cause of pharyngitis.With the latter infection, acute onset of fever and sore throatis followed in 1–2 days by grayish membrane over pharynxand tonsils, which may extend into larynx and trachea.
  • Positive throat culture confirms diagnosisof these pathogens.

    • Peritonsillar, Retropharyngeal, and Lateral Pharyngeal Abscesses

  • Generallydue to spread of infection from local sites.
  • Most common pathogens are aerobes (groupA Streptococcus, S. aureus, H. influenzae) and anaerobes (Peptostreptococcus,Fusobacterium, Prevotella, Porphyromonas species), although manyinfections are polymicrobial.
  • Peritonsillar abscess generally occursas complication of acute bacterial tonsillitis in older childrenand adolescents. Sore throat, fever, pain on swallowing, drooling,and trismus characterize this infection. Ipsilateral otalgia alsomay occur. Swollen inflamed tonsil has fluctuant quality and oftenpushes uvula across midline of oral cavity. Diagnosis is clinical,although specific pathogen can be cultured from infected tonsilor abscess drainage.
  • Although retropharyngeal abscess/cellulitisis uncommon cause of sore throat, it usually occurs in children <4yrs. Most children appear toxic and are in respiratory distress,but some complain of sore throat and painful swallowing early incourse. Often direct visualization is impossible and lateral neck radiographyshows bulge of posterior pharyngeal wall. If diagnosis is uncertain,CT can be performed.
  • Lateral pharyngeal abscess usuallypresents with fever and trismus as well as swelling and tendernessbelow mandible. CT is helpful in determining extent of abscess.

    • Irritants

  • Upon awakeningin morning, otherwise well child may have scratchy sore throat, whichusually improves over several hours. This sensation is usually dueto dryness of pharynx and frequently occurs with rhinitis, especiallyduring winter months when humidity is low and mouth breathing islikely because of nasal congestion.
  • Exposure to dust or smoke also maycause irritation of pharynx.
  • Postnasal drip secondary to allergicrhinitis or sinusitis also may cause pharyngeal irritation and mildsore throat.

    • Trauma

  • Excessiveuse of voice due to prolonged shouting or singing may cause sore throat.
  • Burn secondary to exposure of hot gasesor liquid also may cause pharyngeal pain.

    • Foreign Body

  • Foreignbody lodged in pharynx causes acute onset of choking, dysphagia,and sometimes upper airway obstruction.
  • Commonly, fish bone or chicken bonecan be seen in pharynx. Otherwise, neck radiography may be diagnostic.
  • Only symptom of retained foreign bodyin upper airway may be persistent stridor. In this circumstance,laryngoscopy is usually diagnostic.

    • Caustic Substances

  • Ingestionof caustic substances may cause inflammation of pharynx.
  • History and physical exam are diagnostic.
  • For suspected esophageal injury, esophagoscopyshould be performed.

    • Psychogenic

    Sometimes there does not seem to be explanationfor sore throat after history, physical exam, negative throat culture,and normal neck radiographs. In this case, psychosocial historyis most valuable clinical tool.

    Diagnostic Approach

  • Historyand physical exam provide important clues for proper diagnosis ofsore throat.
  • Most common clinical dilemma in childwith pharyngitis is whether pathogen is virus or group A Streptococcus.Tests to detect streptococcal antigen may be diagnostic, but ifresults of such tests are negative, throat culture should be performed.
  • Because many cases of pharyngitis aredue to viruses, antibiotic use should be guided by antigen detectiontests or culture. Presence of conjunctivitis, cough, rhinitis, andhoarseness suggests viral etiology. Infectious mononucleosis isalso a consideration, especially in older children and adolescents.
  • Neck radiography, flexible laryngoscopy,and CT are useful with suspected foreign body or retropharyngeal/lateralpharyngeal abscess.
    • >

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: The Diagnostic Approach to Symptoms and Signs in Pediatrics, 2006

    Fever [Pyrexia]: History and physical examination
    (Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms)

    If the patient's fever is only mild to moderate, ask him when it began and how high his temperature reached. Did the fever disappear, only to reappear later? Did he experience other symptoms, such as chills, fatigue, or pain?

    Obtain a complete medical history, noting especially immunosuppressive treatments or disorders, infection, trauma, surgery, diagnostic testing, and the use of anesthesia or other medications. Ask about recent travel because certain diseases are endemic.

    Let the history findings direct your physical examination. Because a fever can accompany diverse disorders, the examination may range from a brief evaluation of one body system to a comprehensive review of all systems. (See How fever develops.)

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms, 2007

    FEVER: Approach to the Diagnosis
    (Differential Diagnosis in Primary Care)

    There are certain things to remember when a patient with fever is approached. First, a mild elevation up to 100.5∘F (38∘C) rectally may be normal in some people. Second, one should rule out malingering by the patient or incorrect recording by hospital personnel. Finally, psychogenic disorders must be ruled out. The duration and severity of the fever are important. If possible, a careful chart of the fever should be made with the patient off all drugs (especially aspirin and steroids). Conditions with intermittent or relapsing fever such as brucellosis, malaria, and Mediterranean fever will be elucidated in this fashion (see Table 28). The association with other symptoms is important. Fever, right upper quadrant pain, and jaundice suggest cholecystitis or cholangitis, whereas fever with right-sided flank pain suggests pyelonephritis. After taking a few moments to jot down the differential before launching into the history and physical examination, one can question and examine the patient more appropriately. The differential diagnosis will also lead to more appropriate use of laboratory testing.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Differential Diagnosis in Primary Care, 2007

    SORE THROAT: Approach to the Diagnosis
    (Differential Diagnosis in Primary Care)

    In diagnosing the cause of sore throat, it has been traditional to do a throat culture and possibly a CBC and differential and to start the patient on penicillin until the culture comes back. Now Abbott Laboratories (Abbott Park, IL) has developed a rapid Streptococcus agglutination test on a throat swab. In resistant cases, repeated cultures (especially for diphtheria, gonorrhea, and Listeria organisms) and a monospot test will be useful. Because the titer for infectious mononucleosis may not be high initially, the differential test (Paul–Bunnell) or a repeated monospot test 1 to 3 weeks later may be necessary. Remember that subacute thyroiditis may present as a sore throat.

    » READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »

    Source: Differential Diagnosis in Primary Care, 2007


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