Causes of Migraine

• Tension headache
• Pseudotumor cerebri
  –Elevated ICP with no masses or abnormalities in CSF or labs
• Cluster headache
  –Unilateral nonthrobbing, periorbital pain
  –May have ipsilateral conjectival injection, lacrimation, rhinorrhea
• Subarachnoid hemorrhage
  –Sudden paroxysmal headache
  –Meningeal signs
  –An emergency requiring CT and LP
• Increased intracranial pressure
  –Tumor, abscess, hydrocephalus, hemorrhage
• Sinusitis, otitis
• Dental disease
• Systemic infection
• TMJ disease
• Postconcussive syndrome
• Trigeminal neuralgia
• Mitochondrial disorders
• Venous sinus thrombosis
• Meningitis/encephalitis
• CSF leak, post-lumbar puncture
• Hypertensive crisis
• Trauma
• Arteriovenous malformation
• Stroke
• Toxins and medication
  –Nitrites, cocaine, interferon, CO
• Fever
• Anemia

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Aura: Medical causes
(Handbook of Signs & Symptoms (Third Edition))

❑ Classic migraine headache. A migraine is preceded by a vague premonition and then, usually, a visual aura involving flashes of light. The aura lasts 10 to 30 minutes and may intensify until it completely obscures the patient’s vision. A classic migraine may cause numbness or tingling of the lips, face, or hands; slight confusion; and dizziness before the characteristic unilateral, throbbing headache appears. It slowly intensifies; when it peaks, it may cause photophobia, nausea, and vomiting.

❑ Seizure, generalized tonic-clonic. A generalized tonic-clonic seizure may begin with or without an aura. The patient loses consciousness and falls to the ground. His body stiffens (tonic phase), and then he experiences rapid, synchronous muscle jerking and hyperventilation (clonic phase). The seizure usually lasts 2 to 5 minutes.

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Headache: Medical causes
(Handbook of Signs & Symptoms (Third Edition))

Anthrax (cutaneous)

Along with a macular papular lesion that develops into a vesicle and finally a painless ulcer, headache, lymphadenopathy, fever, and malaise may occur.

Arteriovenous malformations

Less common than cerebral aneurysms, vascular malformations usually result from developmental defects of the cerebral veins and arteries

Although many are present from birth, they manifest in adulthood with a triad of symptoms: headache, hemorrhage, and seizures.

Brain abscess

With brain abscess, the headache is localized to the abscess site

Usually, it intensifies over a few days and is aggravated by straining. Accompanying the headache may be nausea, vomiting, and focal or generalized seizures. The patient’s LOC varies from drowsiness to deep stupor. Depending on the abscess site, associated signs and symptoms may include aphasia, impaired visual acuity, hemiparesis, ataxia, tremors, and personality changes. Signs of infection, such as fever and pallor, usually develop late; however, if the abscess remains encapsulated, these signs may not appear.

Brain tumor

Initially, a tumor causes a localized headache near the tumor site; as the tumor grows, the headache  becomes generalized

The pain is usually intermittent, deep seated, dull, and most intense in the morning. It’s aggravated by coughing, stooping, Valsalva’s maneuver, and changes in head position and relieved by sitting and rest. Associated signs and symptoms include personality changes, an altered LOC, motor and sensory dysfunction and, eventually, signs of increased ICP, such as vomiting, increased systolic blood pressure, and a widened pulse pressure.

Cerebral aneurysm (ruptured)

The patient may lose consciousness immediately or display a variably altered LOC. Depending on the severity and location of the bleeding, he may also exhibit nausea and vomiting; signs and symptoms of meningeal irritation, such as nuchal rigidity and blurred vision; hemiparesis; and other features.

Ebolavirus

A headache is usually abrupt in onset, commonly occurring on the fifth day of illness

Additionally, the patient has a history of malaise, myalgia, a high fever, diarrhea, abdominal pain, dehydration, and lethargy. A maculopapular skin rash develops between the fifth and seventh days of the illness. Other possible findings include pleuritic chest pain; a dry, hacking cough; pronounced pharyngitis; hematemesis; melena; and bleeding from the nose, gums, and vagina. Death usually occurs in the second week of the illness, preceded by severe blood loss and shock.

Encephalitis

A severe, generalized headache is characteristic with encephalitis

Within 48 hours, the patient’s LOC typically deteriorates — perhaps from lethargy to coma. Associated signs and symptoms include a fever, nuchal rigidity, irritability, seizures, nausea and vomiting, photophobia, cranial nerve palsies such as ptosis, and focal neurologic deficits, such as hemiparesis and hemiplegia.

Epidural hemorrhage (acute)

Head trauma and a sudden, brief loss of consciousness usually precede acute epidural hemorrhage, which causes a progressively severe headache that’s accompanied by nausea and vomiting, bladder distention, confusion, and then a rapid decrease in the patient’s LOC Other signs and symptoms include unilateral seizures, hemiparesis, hemiplegia, a high fever, a decreased pulse rate and bounding pulse, a widened pulse pressure, increased blood pressure, a positive Babinski’s reflex, and decerebrate posture.

If the patient slips into a coma, his respirations deepen and become stertorous, then shallow and irregular, and eventually they cease

Pupil dilation may occur on the same side as the hemorrhage.

Glaucoma (acute angle-closure)

Glaucoma is an ophthalmic emergency that may cause an excruciating headache as well as acute eye pain, blurred vision, halo vision, nausea, and vomiting Assessment reveals conjunctival injection, a cloudy cornea, and a moderately dilated, fixed pupil.

Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema distinguishes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, a viral disease, which was first reported in the United States in 1993 Common reasons for seeking treatment include flulike signs and symptoms — headache, myalgia, fever, nausea, vomiting, and a cough — followed by respiratory distress

Fever, hypoxia, and (in some patients) serious hypotension typify the hospital course. Other signs and symptoms include a rising respiratory rate (28 breaths/minute or more) and an increased heart rate (120 beats/minute or more).

Hypertension

Hypertension may cause a slightly throbbing occipital headache on awakening that decreases in severity during the day However, if the patient’s diastolic blood pressure exceeds 120 mm Hg, the headache remains constant. Associated signs and symptoms include an atrial gallop, restlessness, confusion, nausea and vomiting, blurred vision, seizures, and an altered LOC.

Influenza

A severe generalized or frontal headache usually begins suddenly with the flu. Accompanying signs and symptoms may last for 3 to 5 days and include stabbing retro-orbital pain, weakness, diffuse myalgia, fever, chills, coughing, rhinorrhea and, occasionally, hoarseness.

Listeriosis

Signs and symptoms of listeriosis include fever, myalgia, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea If the infection spreads to the nervous system, meningitis may develop

These signs and symptoms include headache, nuchal rigidity, fever, and a change in the patient’s LOC.

Gender cue

Infections during pregnancy may lead to premature delivery, infection of the neonate, or stillbirth.

Meningitis

Meningitis is marked by the sudden onset of a severe, constant, generalized headache that worsens with movement Associated signs include nuchal rigidity, positive Kernig’s and Brudzinski’s signs, hyperreflexia and, possibly, opisthotonos

A fever occurs early with meningitis and may be accompanied by chills. As ICP increases, vomiting and, occasionally, papilledema develop. Other features include an altered LOC, seizures, ocular palsies, facial weakness, and hearing loss.

Plague (Yersinia pestis)

 The pneumonic form of the plague causes a sudden onset of a headache, chills, fever, myalgia, a productive cough, chest pain, tachypnea, dyspnea, hemoptysis, respiratory distress, and cardiopulmonary insufficiency.

Postconcussional syndrome

A generalized or localized headache may develop 1 to 30 days after head trauma and last for 2 to 3 weeks

This characteristic symptom may be described as an aching, pounding, pressing, stabbing, or throbbing pain The patient’s neurologic examination is normal, but he may experience giddiness or dizziness, blurred vision, fatigue, insomnia, an inability to concentrate, and noise and alcohol intolerance.

Signs and symptoms of this disease include a severe headache, fever, chills, malaise, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea

The fever may last for up to 2 weeks, and in severe cases, the patient may develop hepatitis or pneumonia.

Q Fever

Signs and symptoms of Q fever include severe headaches, fever, chills, malaise, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea Fever may last for up to 2 weeks, and in severe cases, the patient may develop hepatitis or pneumonia.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

SARS is an acute infectious disease of unknown etiology; however, a novel coronavirus has been implicated as a possible cause

Although most cases have been reported in Asia (China, Vietnam, Singapore, Thailand), cases have been documented in Europe and North America The incubation period is 2 to 7 days, and the illness generally begins with a fever (usually greater than 100.4° F [38° C]). Other symptoms include a headache; malaise; a dry, nonproductive cough; and dyspnea. The severity of the illness is highly variable, ranging from mild illness to pneumonia and, in some cases, progressing to respiratory failure and death.

Smallpox (variola major)

Initial signs and symptoms of smallpox include a severe headache, backache, abdominal pain, a high fever, malaise, prostration, and a maculopapular rash on the mucosa of the mouth, pharynx, face, and forearms, and then the trunk and legs The rash becomes vesicular, then pustular, and finally crusts and scabs, leaving a pitted scar

In fatal cases, death results from encephalitis, extensive bleeding, or secondary infection.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage

Subarachnoid hemorrhage commonly produces a sudden, violent headache along with nuchal rigidity, nausea and vomiting, seizures, dizziness, ipsilateral pupil dilation, and an altered LOC that may rapidly progress to coma The patient also exhibits positive Kernig’s and Brudzinski’s signs, photophobia, blurred vision and, possibly, a fever

Focal signs and symptoms (such as hemiparesis, hemiplegia, sensory or vision disturbances, and aphasia) and signs of elevated ICP (such as bradycardia and increased blood pressure) may also occur.

Subdural hematoma

Typically associated with head trauma, acute and chronic subdural hematomas may cause a headache and decreased LOC With acute subdural hematoma, head trauma also produces drowsiness, confusion, and agitation that may progress to coma. Later findings include signs of increased ICP and focal neurologic deficits such as hemiparesis.

Chronic subdural hematoma produces a dull, pounding headache that fluctuates in severity and is located over the hematoma

Weeks or months after the initial head trauma, the patient may experience giddiness, personality changes, confusion, seizures, and a progressively worsening LOC. Late signs may include unilateral pupil dilation, sluggish pupil reaction to light, and ptosis.

Tularemia

Signs and symptoms following inhalation of the bacterium Francisella tularensis include an abrupt onset of a headache, a fever, chills, generalized myalgia, a nonproductive cough, dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, and empyema.

Typhus

Initial symptoms of typhus include a headache, myalgia, arthralgia, and malaise followed by an abrupt onset of chills, a fever, nausea, and vomiting A maculopapular rash may be present in some cases.

West Nile encephalitis

West Nile encephalitis is a brain infection that’s caused by West Nile virus, a mosquito-borne flavivirus commonly found in Africa, West Asia, the Middle East and, rarely, North America

Mild infection is common; signs and symptoms include a fever, a headache, and body aches, commonly with a skin rash and swollen lymph glands More severe infection is marked by a high fever, a headache, neck stiffness, stupor, disorientation, coma, tremors, occasional seizures, paralysis and, rarely, death.

Other causes

Diagnostic tests

A lumbar puncture or myelogram may produce a throbbing frontal headache that worsens on standing.

Drugs

Many drugs can cause headaches For example, indomethacin produces headaches — usually in the morning — in many patients

Vasodilators and drugs with a vasodilating effect, such as nitrates, typically cause a throbbing headache. Headaches may also follow withdrawal from vasopressors, such as caffeine, ergotamine, and sympathomimetics.

Herb alert

Herbal remedies — such as St

John’s wort and ginseng — can cause various adverse reactions, including headaches.

Traction

Cervical traction with pins commonly causes a headache, which may be generalized or localized to pin insertion sites.

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Headache: Causes and incidence
(Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

Most chronic headaches result from tension (muscle contraction), which may be caused by emotional stress, fatigue, menstruation, or environmental stimuli (noise, crowds, or bright lights). Other possible causes include glaucoma; inflammation of the eyes or mucosa of the nasal or paranasal sinuses; diseases of the scalp, teeth, extracranial arteries, or external or middle ear; muscle spasms of the face, neck, or shoulders; and cervical arthritis. In addition, headaches may be caused by vasodilators (nitrates, alcohol, and histamine), systemic disease, hypoxia, hypertension, head trauma and tumor, intracranial bleeding, abscess, or aneurysm.

The cause of migraine headache is unknown, but it’s associated with constriction and dilation of intracranial and extracranial arteries. Certain biochemical abnormalities are thought to occur during a migraine attack. These include local leakage of a vasodilator polypeptide called neurokinin through the dilated arteries and a decrease in the plasma level of serotonin.

Headache pain may emanate from the pain-sensitive structures of the skin, scalp, muscles, arteries, and veins; cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X; or cervical nerves 1, 2, and 3. Intracranial mechanisms of headaches include traction or displacement of arteries, venous sinuses, or venous tributaries and inflammation or direct pressure on the cranial nerves with afferent pain fibers.

Affecting up to 10% of Americans, headaches are more common in females and have a strong familial incidence.

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West Nile encephalitis: Causes and incidence
(Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

WNV is transmitted to humans by the bite of a mosquito (primarily the Culex species) infected with the virus. It's considered the primary vector for WNV and the source of the August 1999 outbreak in New York, New Jersey and Connecticut. Mosquitoes become infected by feeding on birds contaminated with the West Nile virus and then transmitting it to humans and animals during a blood meal or “bite.” (See Transmission routes of West Nile virus, page 256.)

Ticks have been found infected with WNV in Africa and Asia only. The role of ticks in the transmission and maintenance of the virus remains uncertain, and to date they aren't considered vectors for WNV in the United States.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has reported that there is no evidence that a person can contract the virus from handling live or dead infected birds. However, avoid barehanded contact when handling dead animals, including birds, and use gloves or double plastic bags to dispose of a carcass. Report the finding to the local health department.

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Cutaneous larva migrans: Causes and incidence
(Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))

Under favorable conditions — warmth, moisture, sandy soil — hookworm or roundworm ova present in feces of affected animals (such as dogs and cats) and hatch into larvae, which can then burrow into human skin on contact. After penetrating its host, the larva becomes trapped under the skin, unable to reach the intestines to complete its normal life cycle.

The parasite then begins to move, producing the peculiar, tunnel-like lesions that are alternately meandering and linear, reflecting the nematode’s persistent and unsuccessful attempts to escape its host.

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Aura: Medical causes
(Professional Guide to Signs & Symptoms (Fifth Edition))

Migraine headache, classic

A classic migraine is preceded by a vague premonition and then, usually, a visual aura involving flashes of light. The aura lasts 10 to 30 minutes and may intensify until it completely obscures the patient’s vision. A classic migraine may cause numbness or tingling of the lips, face, or hands; slight confusion; and dizziness before the characteristic unilateral, throbbing headache appears. The headache slowly intensifies; when it peaks, the patient may experience photophobia, nausea, and vomiting.

Seizure, generalized tonic-clonic

A generalized tonic-clonic seizure may begin with an aura. The patient loses consciousness and falls to the ground. His body stiffens (tonic phase); then he experiences rapid, synchronous muscle jerking and hyperventilation (clonic phase). The seizure usually lasts 2 to 5 minutes.

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Headache: Medical causes
(Professional Guide to Signs & Symptoms (Fifth Edition))

Anthrax, cutaneous

Along with a macular or papular lesion that develops into a vesicle and finally a painless ulcer, this disorder may produce a headache, lymphadenopathy, fever, and malaise.

Brain abscess

In this disorder, the headache is localized to the abscess site; it usually intensifies over a few days and is aggravated by straining. Accompanying the headache may be nausea, vomiting, and focal or generalized seizures. The patient’s LOC varies from drowsiness to deep stupor. Depending on the abscess site, associated signs and symptoms may include aphasia, impaired visual acuity, hemiparesis, ataxia, tremors, and personality changes. Signs of infection, such as fever and pallor, usually develop late; however, if the abscess remains encapsulated, these signs may not appear.

Brain tumor

Initially, a tumor causes a localized headache near the tumor site; as the tumor grows, the headache eventually becomes generalized. The pain is usually intermittent, deep seated, and dull and is most intense in the morning. It’s aggravated by coughing, stooping, Valsalva’s maneuver, and changes in head position, and it’s relieved by sitting and rest. Associated signs and symptoms include personality changes, altered LOC, motor and sensory dysfunction, and eventually signs of increased ICP, such as vomiting, increased systolic blood pressure, and widened pulse pressure.

Cerebral aneurysm (ruptured)

Cerebral aneurysm is a life-threatening disorder that’s characterized by a sudden excruciating headache, which may be unilateral and usually peaks within minutes of the rupture. The patient may lose consciousness immediately or display a variably altered LOC. Depending on the severity and location of the bleeding, he may also exhibit nausea and vomiting; signs and symptoms of meningeal irritation, such as nuchal rigidity and blurred vision; hemiparesis; and other features.

Ebola Virus

A sudden headache commonly occurs on the 5th day of this deadly illness. Additionally, the patient has a history of malaise, myalgia, high fever, diarrhea, abdominal pain, dehydration, and lethargy. A maculopapular rash develops between the 5th and 7th days of the illness. Other possible findings include pleuritic chest pain; a dry, hacking cough; pronounced pharyngitis; hematemesis; melena; and bleeding from the nose, gums, and vagina. Death usually occurs in the 2nd week of the illness, preceded by massive blood loss and shock.

Encephalitis

A severe, generalized headache is characteristic with this disorder. Within 48 hours, the patient’s LOC typically deteriorates—perhaps from lethargy to coma. Associated signs and symptoms include fever, nuchal rigidity, irritability, seizures, nausea and vomiting, photophobia, cranial nerve palsies such as ptosis, and focal neurologic deficits, such as hemiparesis and hemiplegia.

Epidural hemorrhage (acute)

Head trauma and a sudden, brief loss of consciousness usually precede this hemorrhage, which causes a progressively severe headache that’s accompanied by nausea and vomiting, bladder distention, confusion, and then a rapid decrease in LOC. Other signs and symptoms include unilateral seizures, hemiparesis, hemiplegia, high fever, decreased pulse rate and bounding pulse, widened pulse pressure, increased blood pressure, a positive Babinski’s reflex, and decerebrate posture.

If the patient slips into a coma, his respirations deepen and become stertorous, then shallow and irregular, and eventually cease. Pupil dilation may occur on the same side as the hemorrhage.

Glaucoma, acute angle-closure

This type of glaucoma is an ophthalmic emergency that may cause an excruciating headache as well as acute eye pain, blurred vision, halo vision, nausea, and vomiting. Assessment reveals conjunctival injection, a cloudy cornea, and a moderately dilated, fixed pupil.

Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome

Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema distinguishes this viral disease, which was first reported in the United States in 1993. Common reasons for seeking treatment include flulike signs and symptoms—headache, myalgia, fever, nausea, vomiting, and a cough—followed by respiratory distress. Fever, hypoxia, and (in some patients) serious hypotension typify the hospital course. Other signs and symptoms include a rising respiratory rate (28 breaths/minute or more) and an increased heart rate (120 beats/minute or more).

Hypertension

This disorder may cause a slightly throbbing occipital headache on awakening that decreases in severity during the day. However, if the patient’s diastolic blood pressure exceeds 120 mm Hg, the headache remains constant. Associated signs and symptoms include an atrial gallop, restlessness, confusion, nausea and vomiting, blurred vision, seizures, and altered LOC.

Influenza

A severe generalized or frontal headache usually begins suddenly with the flu. Accompanying signs and symptoms may last for 3 to 5 days and include stabbing retro-orbital pain, weakness, diffuse myalgia, fever, chills, coughing, rhinorrhea and, occasionally, hoarseness.

Intracerebral hemorrhage

In some patients, this hemorrhage produces a severe generalized headache. Other signs and symptoms vary with the size and location of the hemorrhage. A large hemorrhage may produce a rapid, steady decrease in LOC, perhaps resulting in a coma. Other common findings include hemiplegia, hemiparesis, abnormal pupil size and response, aphasia, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, seizures, decreased sensation, irregular respirations, positive Babinski’s reflex, decorticate or decerebrate posture, and increased blood pressure.

Listeriosis

If this infection spreads to the nervous system, it may cause meningitis, whose signs and symptoms include headache, nuchal rigidity, fever, and change in LOC. Earlier signs and symptoms of listeriosis include fever, myalgia, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Gender Cue: Listeriosis during pregnancy may lead to premature delivery, infection of the neonate, or stillbirth.

Meningitis

This disorder is marked by the sudden onset of a severe, constant, generalized headache that worsens with movement. Fever and chills are other early signs. As meningitis progresses, it also causes nuchal rigidity, positive Kernig’s and Brudzinski’s signs, hyperreflexia, altered LOC, seizures, ocular palsies, facial weakness, hearing loss, vomiting and, possibly, opisthotonos and papilledema.

Plague

The pneumonic form of this lethal bacterial infection causes a sudden onset of headache, chills, fever, and myalgia. Pulmonary findings include a productive cough, chest pain, tachypnea, dyspnea, hemoptysis, respiratory distress, and cardiopulmonary insufficiency.

Postconcussion syndrome

A generalized or localized headache may develop 1 to 30 days after head trauma and last for 2 to 3 weeks. This characteristic symptom may be described as an aching, pounding, pressing, stabbing, or throbbing pain. The patient’s neurologic examination is normal, but he may experience giddiness or dizziness, blurred vision, fatigue, insomnia, inability to concentrate, and noise and alcohol intolerance.

Q fever

Signs and symptoms of this disease include severe headaches, fever, chills, malaise, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. The fever may last for up to 2 weeks, and in severe cases, the patient may develop hepatitis or pneumonia.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

SARS is an acute infectious disease of unknown etiology; however, a novel coronavirus has been implicated as a possible cause. Although most cases have been reported in Asia (China, Vietnam, Singapore, Thailand), cases have cropped up in Europe and North America. After an incubation period of 2 to 7 days, the illness generally begins with a fever (usually greater than 100.4° F [38° C]).  Other symptoms include headache, malaise, a nonproductive cough, and dyspnea. SARS may produce only mild symptoms, or it may progress to pneumonia and, in some cases, even respiratory failure and death.

Sinusitis (acute)

This disorder is usually marked by a dull periorbital headache that’s usually aggravated by bending over or touching the face and is relieved by sinus drainage. Fever, sinus tenderness, nasal turbinate edema, sore throat, malaise, cough, and nasal discharge may accompany the headache.

Smallpox (variola major)

Initial signs and symptoms of this virus include a severe headache, backache, abdominal pain, high fever, malaise, prostration, and a maculopapular rash on the mucosa of the mouth, pharynx, face, and forearms and then on the trunk and legs. The rash becomes vesicular, then pustular. After 8 or 9 days, the pustules form a crust, which later separates from the skin, leaving a pitted scar. Death may result from encephalitis, extensive bleeding, or secondary infection.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage

This hemorrhage commonly produces a sudden, violent headache along with nuchal rigidity, nausea and vomiting, seizures, dizziness, ipsilateral pupil dilation, and altered LOC that may rapidly progress to coma. The patient also exhibits positive Kernig’s and Brudzinski’s signs, photophobia, blurred vision and, possibly, a fever. Focal signs and symptoms (such as hemiparesis, hemiplegia, sensory or vision disturbances, and aphasia) and signs of elevated ICP (such as bradycardia and increased blood pressure) may also occur.

Subdural hematoma

Typically associated with head trauma, both acute and chronic subdural hematomas may cause headache and decreased LOC. An acute subdural hematoma also produces drowsiness, confusion, and agitation that may progress to coma. Later findings include signs of increased ICP and focal neurologic deficits such as hemiparesis.

A chronic subdural hematoma produces a dull, pounding headache that fluctuates in severity and is located over the hematoma. Weeks or months after the initial head trauma, the patient may experience giddiness, personality changes, confusion, seizures, and progressively worsening LOC. Late signs may include unilateral pupil dilation, sluggish pupil reaction to light, and ptosis.

Temporal arteritis

A throbbing unilateral headache in the temporal or frontotemporal region may be accompanied by vision loss, hearing loss, confusion, and fever. The temporal arteries are tender, swollen, nodular, and sometimes erythematous.

Tularemia

Signs and symptoms following inhalation of the bacterium Francisella tularensis include abrupt onset of headache, fever, chills, generalized myalgia, a nonproductive cough, dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, and empyema.

Typhus

In typhus, initial symptoms of headache, myalgia, arthralgia, and malaise are followed by an abrupt onset of chills, fever, nausea, and vomiting. A maculopapular rash may also occur.

West Nile encephalitis

This brain infection is caused by West Nile virus, a mosquito-borne flavivirus commonly found in Africa, West Asia, the Middle East and, rarely, in North America. Most patients have mild signs and symptoms, including fever, headache, body aches, rash, and swollen lymph glands. More severe infection is marked by high fever, headache, neck stiffness, stupor, disorientation, coma, tremors, and paralysis.

Other causes

Diagnostic tests

A lumbar puncture or myelogram may produce a throbbing frontal headache that worsens on standing.

Drugs

A wide variety of drugs can cause headaches. For example, indomethacin produces headaches—usually in the morning—in many patients. Vasodilators and drugs with a vasodilating effect, such as nitrates, typically cause a throbbing headache. Headaches may also follow withdrawal from vasopressors, such as caffeine, ergotamine, and sympathomimetics.

Herb Alert

Traction

Cervical traction with pins commonly causes a headache, which may be generalized or localized to pin insertion sites.

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Night blindness [Nyctalopia]: Medical causes
(Professional Guide to Signs & Symptoms (Fifth Edition))

Cataracts

Night blindness and halo vision occur early in senile-type cataract formation. As the cataract matures, it causes gradual, painless visual blurring and vision loss, sometimes with visible lens opacity.

Choroidal dystrophies

Night blindness and decreased peripheral vision may occur early in choroidal dystrophies. Disease progression causes loss of central vision.

Fundus albipunctatus

Night blindness is the chief complaint in this retinal and choroidal disease. Multiple small, round, yellow-white dots are present on the retina.

Fundus flavimaculatus

With this disease, night blindness may be pronounced or may be an incidental finding. Irregular yellow or white lesions appear deep in the retina.

Glaucoma

Night blindness occurs late in chronic open-angle glaucoma, with halo vision, gradually impaired bilateral visual acuity, loss of peripheral vision and, possibly, slight eye pain.

Goldman-Favre dystrophy

With this disorder, night blindness is usually the chief complaint. The retina resembles that seen in retinitis pigmentosa.

Oguchi’s disease

This rare, hereditary retinal and choroidal degeneration produces night blindness and a retina with a yellowish metallic sheen.

Optic nerve atrophy

This disorder may cause night blindness, visual field and color vision defects, and decreased visual acuity. Pupillary reactions are sluggish, and optic disk pallor is evident.

Retinitis pigmentosa

In this usually hereditary retinal degeneration, night blindness is characteristically the first symptom, usually arising in adolescence. Scattered black pigmentary bodies form in a characteristic “bone-spicule” arrangement on the retina. As the disease progresses, the visual field gradually constricts, causing tunnel or “gun barrel” vision and eventually total blindness.

Vitamin A deficiency

Night blindness is typically the first symptom of vitamin A deficiency. Associated findings include xerophthalmia (conjunctival dryness) and Bitot’s spots (gray-white conjunctival plaques). The patient may complain of visual blurring or vision loss. His skin may be dry and scaly. His mucous membranes may be shrunken and hardened.

Other causes

Drugs

Isotretinoin, used to treat inflammatory acne, rarely causes night blindness.

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Headache: Differential Overview
(Field Guide to Bedside Diagnosis)

❑ Migraine

❑ Tension

❑ Acute sinusitis

❑ Acute glaucoma

❑ Postconcussive

❑ Cluster

❑ Meningitis

❑ Drugs

❑ Hypoglycemia

❑ Benign exertional headache

❑ Temporomandibular joint inflammation

❑ Subdural hematoma

❑ Subarachnoid hemorrhage

❑ Acute epidural hematoma

❑ Lumbar puncture

❑ Brain tumor

❑ Headache in HIV

❑ Pseudotumor cerebri

❑ Hypertensive encephalopathy

❑ Carbon monoxide intoxication

❑ Giant cell arteritis

❑ Psychogenic

❑ Brain abscess

❑ Encephalitis

❑ Arteriovenous malformations

❑ Cavernous sinus thrombosis

❑ Pituitary apoplexy

❑ Carotid artery dissection

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Encephalitis: Causes
(Handbook of Diseases)

Encephalitis generally results from infection with arboviruses specific to rural areas. In urban areas, it’s most frequently caused by enteroviruses (coxsackievirus, poliovirus, and echovirus).

Other causes include herpesvirus, mumps virus, human immunodeficiency virus, adenoviruses, and demyelinating diseases after measles, varicella, rubella, or vaccination.

Between World War I and the Depression, a type of encephalitis known as lethargic encephalitis, von Econ-omo’s disease, or sleeping sickness occurred with some regularity. The causative virus was never clearly identified, and the disease is rare today. Even so, the term sleeping sickness persists and in many cases is mistakenly used to describe other types of encephalitis as well. The most recent outbreak of mosquito-borne encephalitis was West Nile encephalitis.

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Headache: Causes
(Handbook of Diseases)

Most chronic headaches result from tension — muscle contraction — that may be caused by emotional stress, fatigue, menstruation, or environmental stimuli (such as noise, crowds, and bright lights).

Other possible causes include glaucoma; inflammation of the eyes or mucosa of the nasal or paranasal sinuses; diseases of the scalp, teeth, extracranial arteries, or external or middle ear; and muscle spasms of the face, neck, or shoulders.

In addition, headaches may be caused by vasodilators (such as nitrates, alcohol, and histamines), systemic disease, hypoxia, hypertension, head trauma and tumor, intracranial bleeding, abscess, and aneurysm.

Migraine headache

The cause of migraine headache is unknown, but a genetic link has been identified. These headaches are associated with constriction and dilation of intracranial and extracranial arteries initiated by neurons in the brainstem. Certain biochemical abnormalities are thought to occur during a migraine attack. They include local leakage of a vasodilator polypeptide called neurokinin through the dilated arteries as an inflammatory response and a decrease in the plasma level of serotonin.

Foods associated with migraine headache include aged or processed cheese and meats, alcoholic beverages (particularly red wine), food additives (such as monosodium glutamate), chocolate- and caffeine-containing foods, and nuts. Changes in the weather pattern, menstrual cycle fluctuations, sleep pattern changes, and too much or too little exercise as well as glaring lights and fatigue can also trigger a migraine headache. In addition, one of the more common causes of a recurring headache is the rebound effect that occurs when the original treatment used to get rid of the headache triggers the next episode (as with narcotics).

Headache pain

Pain may emanate from the pain-sensitive structures of the skin, scalp, muscles, arteries, and veins; cranial nerves V, VII, IX, and X; and cervical nerves 1, 2, and 3. Intracranial mechanisms of headache include traction or displacement of arteries, venous sinuses, or venous tributaries and inflammation or direct pressure on the cranial nerves with afferent pain fibers.

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West Nile encephalitis: Causes
(Handbook of Diseases)

WNV is transmitted to humans by the bite of an infected mosquito (primarily the Culex species). Mosquitoes become infected by feeding on infected birds.

Ticks infected with WNV have been found in Africa and Asia, but their role in transmission and maintenance of the virus is uncertain; they aren’t considered vectors for WNV in the United States.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has reported that there’s no evidence that a person can contract the virus from handling live or dead infected birds. However, barehanded contact when handling dead animals, including dead birds, should be avoided; if a dead animal must be handled, gloves or other protective measures should be used to dispose of the carcass. A dead bird is a sign that there may be infected mosquitoes in the area; findings should be reported to the nearest Emergency Management Office.

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Aura: Medical causes
(Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses)

Classic migraine headache

A migraine headache is preceded by a vague premonition and then, usually, a visual aura involving flashes of light. The aura lasts 10 to 30 minutes and may intensify until it completely obscures the patient’s vision. A classic migraine may cause numbness or tingling of lips, face, or hands; slight confusion; and dizziness before the characteristic unilateral, throbbing headache appears. It slowly intensifies; when it peaks, it may cause photophobia, nausea, and vomiting.

Seizure, generalized tonic-clonic

A generalized tonic-clonic seizure may begin with or without an aura. The patient loses consciousness and falls to the ground. His body stiffens (tonic phase); then he experiences rapid, synchronous muscle jerking and hyperventilation (clonic phase). The seizure usually lasts 2 to 5 minutes.

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Headache: Medical causes
(Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses)

Brain abscess

With brain abscess, the headache is localized to the abscess site. Usually, it intensifies over a few days and is aggravated by straining. Accompanying the headache may be nausea, vomiting, and focal or generalized seizures. The patient’s LOC varies from drowsiness to deep stupor. Depending on the abscess site, associated signs and symptoms may include aphasia, impaired visual acuity, hemiparesis, ataxia, tremors, and personality changes. Signs of infection, such as fever and pallor, usually develop late; however, if the abscess remains encapsulated, these signs may not appear.

Brain tumor

Initially, a brain tumor causes a localized headache near the tumor site; as the tumor grows, the headache eventually becomes generalized. The pain is usually intermittent, deep-seated, and dull, and most intense in the morning. It’s aggravated by coughing, stooping, Valsalva’s maneuver, and changes in head position, and it’s relieved by sitting and rest. Associated signs and symptoms include personality changes, altered LOC, motor and sensory dysfunction, and eventually signs of increased ICP, such as vomiting, increased systolic blood pressure, and widened pulse pressure.

Cerebral aneurysm (ruptured)

Ruptured cerebral aneurysm is a life-threatening disorder that’s characterized by a sudden, excruciating headache, which may be unilateral and usually peaks within minutes of the rupture. The patient may lose consciousness immediately or display a variably altered LOC. Depending on the severity and location of the bleeding, he may also exhibit nausea and vomiting; signs and symptoms of meningeal irritation, such as nuchal rigidity and blurred vision; hemiparesis; and other features.

Encephalitis

A severe, generalized headache is characteristic of encephalitis. Within 48 hours, the patient’s LOC typically deteriorates — perhaps from lethargy to coma. Associated signs and symptoms include fever, nuchal rigidity, irritability, seizures, nausea and vomiting, photophobia, cranial nerve palsies such as ptosis, and focal neurologic deficits, such as hemiparesis and hemiplegia.

Epidural hemorrhage (acute)

Head trauma and a sudden, brief loss of consciousness usually precede acute epidural hemorrhage, which causes a progressively severe headache that’s accompanied by nausea and vomiting, bladder distention, confusion, and then a rapid decrease in LOC. Other signs and symptoms include unilateral seizures, hemiparesis, hemiplegia, high fever, decreased pulse rate and bounding pulse, widened pulse pressure, increased blood pressure, a positive Babinski’s reflex, and decerebrate posture.

If the patient slips into coma, his respirations deepen and become stertorous, then shallow and irregular, and eventually they cease. Pupil dilation may occur on the same side as the hemorrhage.

Glaucoma (acute angle-closure)

Acute angle-closure glaucoma is an ophthalmic emergency that may cause an excruciating headache as well as acute eye pain, blurred vision, halo vision, nausea, and vomiting. Assessment reveals conjunctival injection, a cloudy cornea, and a moderately dilated, fixed pupil.

Hypertension

Hypertension may cause a slightly throbbing occipital headache on awakening that decreases in severity during the day. However, if the patient’s diastolic blood pressure exceeds 120 mm Hg, the headache remains constant. Associated signs and symptoms include an atrial gallop, restlessness, confusion, nausea and vomiting, blurred vision, seizures, and altered LOC.

Influenza

A severe generalized or frontal headache usually begins suddenly with the flu. Accompanying signs and symptoms may last for 3 to 5 days and include stabbing retro-orbital pain, weakness, diffuse myalgia, fever, chills, coughing, rhinorrhea and, occasionally, hoarseness.

Intracerebral hemorrhage

In some patients, intracerebral hemorrhage produces a severe generalized headache. Signs and symptoms vary with the size and location of the hemorrhage. A large hemorrhage may produce a rapid, steady decrease in LOC, perhaps resulting in coma. Other common findings include hemiplegia, hemiparesis, abnormal pupil size and response, aphasia, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, seizures, decreased sensation, irregular respirations, positive Babinski’s reflex, decorticate or decerebrate posture, and increased blood pressure.

Meningitis

Meningitis is marked by the sudden onset of a severe, constant, generalized headache that worsens with movement. Associated signs include nuchal rigidity, positive Kernig’s and Brudzinski’s signs, hyperreflexia and, possibly, opisthotonos. Fever occurs early with meningitis and may be accompanied by chills. As ICP increases, vomiting and, occasionally, papilledema develop. Other features include altered LOC, seizures, ocular palsies, facial weakness, and hearing loss.

Plague

The pneumonic form of plague, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, causes a sudden onset of headache, chills, fever, myalgias, productive cough, chest pain, tachypnea, dyspnea, hemoptysis, respiratory distress, and cardiopulmonary insufficiency.

Postconcussional syndrome

With postconcussional syndrome, a generalized or localized headache may develop 1 to 30 days after head trauma and last for 2 to 3 weeks. This characteristic symptom may be described as an aching, pounding, pressing, stabbing, or throbbing pain. The patient’s neurologic examination is normal, but he may experience giddiness or dizziness, blurred vision, fatigue, insomnia, inability to concentrate, and noise and alcohol intolerance.

Signs and symptoms of this disease include severe headache, fever, chills, malaise, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. The fever may last for up to 2 weeks, and in severe cases, the patient may develop hepatitis or pneumonia.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) is an acute infectious disease of unknown etiology that generally begins with a fever (usually greater than 100.4° F [38° C]). Other symptoms of SARS include headache, malaise, a dry nonproductive cough, and dyspnea. The severity of the illness is highly variable, ranging from mild illness to pneumonia and, in some cases, progressing to respiratory failure and death.

Sinusitis (acute)

Acute sinusitis is usually marked by a dull periorbital headache that’s usually aggravated by bending over or touching the face and is relieved by sinus drainage. Fever, sinus tenderness, nasal turbinate edema, sore throat, malaise, cough, and nasal discharge may accompany the headache.

Smallpox

Initial signs and symptoms of smallpox (variola major) include severe headache, backache, abdominal pain, high fever, malaise, prostration, and a maculopapular rash on the mucosa of the mouth, pharynx, face, and forearms, and then the trunk and legs. The rash becomes vesicular, then pustular and finally forms a crust and scab, leaving a pitted scar. In fatal cases, death results from encephalitis, extensive bleeding, or secondary infection.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage

Subarachnoid hemorrhage commonly produces a sudden, violent headache along with nuchal rigidity, nausea and vomiting, seizures, dizziness, ipsilateral pupil dilation, and altered LOC that may rapidly progress to coma. The patient also exhibits positive Kernig’s and Brudzinski’s signs, photophobia, blurred vision and, possibly, fever. Focal signs and symptoms (such as hemiparesis, hemiplegia, sensory or vision disturbances, and aphasia) and signs of elevated ICP (such as bradycardia and increased blood pressure) may also occur.

Subdural hematoma

Typically associated with head trauma, both acute and chronic subdural hematomas may cause headache and decreased LOC. With acute subdural hematoma, head trauma also produces drowsiness, confusion, and agitation that may progress to coma. Later findings include signs of increased ICP and focal neurologic deficits such as hemiparesis.

Chronic subdural hematoma produces a dull, pounding headache that fluctuates in severity and is located over the hematoma. Weeks or months after the initial head trauma, the patient may experience giddiness, personality changes, confusion, seizures, and progressively worsening LOC. Late signs may include unilateral pupil dilation, sluggish pupil reaction to light, and ptosis.

Temporal arteritis

A throbbing unilateral headache in the temporal or frontotemporal region may be accompanied by vision loss, hearing loss, confusion, and fever. The temporal arteries are tender, swollen, nodular, and sometimes erythematous.

Tularemia

Signs and symptoms of tularemia (caused by inhalation of the bacterium Francisella tularensis) include abrupt onset of headache, fever, chills, generalized myalgias, nonproductive cough, dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, and empyema.

Other causes

Diagnostic tests

A lumbar puncture or myelogram may produce a throbbing frontal headache that worsens on standing.

Drugs

A wide variety of drugs can cause headaches. For example, indomethacin produces headaches — usually in the morning — in many patients. Vasodilators and drugs with a vasodilating effect, such as nitrates, typically cause a throbbing headache. Headaches may also follow withdrawal from vasopressors, such as caffeine, ergotamine, and sympathomimetics.

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Night blindness: Medical causes
(Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses)

Cataracts

Night blindness and halo vision occur early in senile-type cataract formation. As the cataract matures, it causes gradual, painless visual blurring and vision loss, sometimes with visible lens opacity.

Glaucoma

Night blindness occurs late in chronic open-angle glaucoma, with halo vision, gradually impaired bilateral visual acuity, loss of peripheral vision and, possibly, slight eye pain.

Optic nerve atrophy

Optic nerve atrophy may cause night blindness, visual field and color vision defects, and decreased visual acuity. Pupillary reactions are sluggish, and optic disk pallor is evident.

Retinitis pigmentosa

Retinitis pigmentosa is usually a hereditary retinal degeneration in which night blindness is characteristically the first symptom, typically arising in adolescence. Scattered black pigmentary bodies form in a characteristic “bone-spicule” arrangement on the retina. As the disease progresses, the visual field gradually constricts, causing tunnel or “gun barrel” vision and, eventually, total blindness.

Vitamin A deficiency

Night blindness is typically the first symptom of vitamin A deficiency. Associated findings include xerophthalmia (conjunctival dryness) and Bitot’s spots (gray-white conjunctival plaques). The patient may complain of visual blurring or vision loss. His skin may be dry and scaly. His mucous membranes may be shrunken and hardened.

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Headache: Principal Causes of Headache
(The Diagnostic Approach to Symptoms and Signs in Pediatrics)

1. Tension-typeheadache
2. Vascular headache
   1. Migraineheadache
      1. Migrainewith aura (classic migraine)
      2. Migraine without aura (common migraine)
      3. Complicated migraine
         1. Hemiplegicmigraine
         2. Ophthalmoplegic migraine
         3. Basilar artery migraine
         4. Confusional migraine
      4. Migraine variants
   2. Cluster headache
   3. Systemic infection
   4. Hypoxia
   5. Systemic hypertension
   6. Connective tissue diseases
3. Head trauma
4. Headache due to disorders of head andneck structures
   1. Head and neck disorders
   2. Ear, eye, and sinus disorders
   3. Mouth and jaw disorders
5. Intracranial infections
   1. Meningitis
   2. Encephalitis
   3. Brain abscess
6. Traction headache
   1. Braintumor
   2. Intracranial hemorrhage
   3. Disorders of cerebrospinal fluid pressure
7. Psychogenic

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Aura: Medical causes
(Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms)

Classic migraine headache.A migraine is preceded by a vague premonition and then, usually, a visual aura involving flashes of light. The aura lasts 10 to 30 minutes and may intensify until it completely obscures the patient's vision. A classic migraine may cause numbness or tingling of the lips, face, or hands; slight confusion; and dizziness before the characteristic unilateral, throbbing headache appears. It slowly intensifies; when it peaks, it may cause photophobia, nausea, and vomiting.

Seizure, generalized tonic-clonic.A generalized tonic-clonic seizure may begin with or without an aura. The patient loses consciousness and falls to the ground. His body stiffens (tonic phase), and then he experiences rapid, synchronous muscle jerking and hyperventilation (clonic phase). The seizure usually lasts 2 to 5 minutes.

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Headache: Medical causes
(Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms)

Anthrax (cutaneous).Along with a macular papular lesion that develops into a vesicle and finally a painless ulcer with anthrax, headache, lymphadenopathy, fever, and malaise may also occur.

Arteriovenous malformations.Less common than cerebral aneurysms, vascular malformations usually result from developmental defects of the cerebral veins and arteries. Although many are present from birth, they manifest in adulthood with a triad of symptoms: headache, hemorrhage, and seizures.

Brain abscess.With brain abscess, the headache is localized to the abscess site. Usually, it intensifies over a few days and is aggravated by straining. Accompanying the headache may be nausea, vomiting, and focal or generalized seizures. The patient's LOC varies from drowsiness to deep stupor. Depending on the abscess site, associated signs and symptoms may include aphasia, impaired visual acuity, hemiparesis, ataxia, tremors, and personality changes. Signs of infection, such as fever and pallor, usually develop late; however, if the abscess remains encapsulated, these signs may not appear.

Brain tumor.Initially, a tumor causes a localized headache near the tumor site; as the tumor grows, the headache becomes generalized. The pain is usually intermittent, deep seated, dull, and most intense in the morning. It's aggravated by coughing, stooping, Valsalva's maneuver, and changes in head position and relieved by sitting and rest. Associated signs and symptoms include personality changes, an altered LOC, motor and sensory dysfunction and, eventually, signs of increased ICP, such as vomiting, increased systolic blood pressure, and a widened pulse pressure.

Cerebral aneurysm (ruptured).Ruptured cerebral aneurysm is a life-threatening disorder that's characterized by a sudden, excruciating headache, which may be unilateral and usually peaks within minutes of the rupture. The patient may lose consciousness immediately or display a variably altered LOC. Depending on the severity and location of the bleeding, he may also exhibit nausea and vomiting; signs and symptoms of meningeal irritation, such as nuchal rigidity and blurred vision; hemiparesis; seizure activity; and other features.

Ebola virus.With ebola virus, headache is usually abrupt in onset, commonly occurring on the fifth day of illness. Additionally, the patient has a history of malaise, myalgia, a high fever, diarrhea, abdominal pain, dehydration, and lethargy. A maculopapular skin rash develops between the fifth and seventh days of the illness. Other possible findings include pleuritic chest pain; a dry, hacking cough; pronounced pharyngitis; hematemesis; melena; and bleeding from the nose, gums, and vagina. Death usually occurs in the second week of the illness, preceded by severe blood loss and shock.

Encephalitis.A severe, generalized headache is characteristic with encephalitis. Within 48 hours, the patient's LOC typically deteriorates—perhaps from lethargy to coma. Associated signs and symptoms include a fever, nuchal rigidity, irritability, seizures, nausea and vomiting, photophobia, cranial nerve palsies such as ptosis, and focal neurologic deficits, such as hemiparesis and hemiplegia.

Epidural hemorrhage (acute).Head trauma and a sudden, brief loss of consciousness usually precede acute epidural hemorrhage, which causes a progressively severe headache that's accompanied by nausea and vomiting, bladder distention, confusion, and then a rapid decrease in the patient's LOC. Other signs and symptoms include unilateral seizures, hemiparesis, hemiplegia, a high fever, a decreased pulse rate and bounding pulse, a widened pulse pressure, increased blood pressure, a positive Babinski's reflex, and decerebrate posture.

If the patient slips into a coma, his respirations deepen and become stertorous, then shallow and irregular, and eventually they cease. Pupil dilation may occur on the same side as the hemorrhage.

Glaucoma (acute angle-closure).Glaucoma is an ophthalmic emergency that may cause an excruciating headache as well as acute eye pain, blurred vision, halo vision, nausea, and vomiting. Assessment reveals conjunctival injection, a cloudy cornea, and a moderately dilated, fixed pupil.

Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome.Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema distinguishes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Common reasons for seeking treatment include flulike signs and symptoms—headache, myalgia, fever, nausea, vomiting, and a cough—followed by respiratory distress. Fever, hypoxia, and (in some patients) serious hypotension typify the hospital course. Other signs and symptoms include a rising respiratory rate (28 breaths/minute or more) and an increased heart rate (120 beats/minute or more).

Hypertension.Hypertension may cause a slightly throbbing occipital headache on awakening that decreases in severity during the day. However, if the patient's diastolic blood pressure exceeds 120 mm Hg, the headache remains constant. Associated signs and symptoms include an atrial gallop, restlessness, confusion, nausea and vomiting, blurred vision, seizures, and an altered LOC.

Influenza.A severe generalized or frontal headache usually begins suddenly with the flu. Accompanying signs and symptoms may last for 3 to 5 days and include stabbing retro-orbital pain, weakness, diffuse myalgia, fever, chills, coughing, rhinorrhea and, occasionally, hoarseness.

Listeriosis.Signs and symptoms of listeriosis include fever, myalgia, abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. If the infection spreads to the nervous system, meningitis may develop. These signs and symptoms include headache, nuchal rigidity, fever, and a change in the patient's LOC.

Meningitis.Meningitis is marked by the sudden onset of a severe, constant, generalized headache that worsens with movement. Associated signs include nuchal rigidity, positive Kernig's and Brudzinski's signs, hyperreflexia and, possibly, opisthotonos. A fever occurs early with meningitis and may be accompanied by chills. As ICP increases, vomiting and, occasionally, papilledema develop. Other features include an altered LOC, seizures, ocular palsies, facial weakness, and hearing loss.

Plague (Yersinia pestis).The pneumonic form of the plague causes a sudden onset of a headache, chills, fever, myalgia, a productive cough, chest pain, tachypnea, dyspnea, hemoptysis, respiratory distress, and cardiopulmonary insufficiency.

Postconcussional syndrome.A generalized or localized headache may develop 1 to 30 days after head trauma and last for 2 to 3 weeks. This characteristic symptom may be described as an aching, pounding, pressing, stabbing, or throbbing pain. The patient's neurologic examination is normal, but he may experience giddiness or dizziness, blurred vision, fatigue, insomnia, an inability to concentrate, and noise and alcohol intolerance.

Q Fever.Signs and symptoms of Q fever include severe headaches, fever, chills, malaise, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. Fever may last for up to 2 weeks, and in severe cases, the patient may develop hepatitis or pneumonia.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).SARS generally begins with a fever (usually greater than 100.4° F [38° C]). Other symptoms include headache; malaise; a dry, nonproductive cough; and dyspnea. The severity of the illness is highly variable, ranging from mild illness to pneumonia and, in some cases, progressing to respiratory failure and death.

Smallpox (variola major).Initial signs and symptoms of smallpox include a severe headache, backache, abdominal pain, a high fever, malaise, prostration, and a maculopapular rash on the mucosa of the mouth, pharynx, face, and forearms, and then the trunk and legs. The rash becomes vesicular, then pustular, and finally crusts and scabs, leaving a pitted scar. In fatal cases, death results from encephalitis, extensive bleeding, or secondary infection.

Subarachnoid hemorrhage.Subarachnoid hemorrhage commonly produces a sudden, severe headache along with nuchal rigidity, nausea and vomiting, seizures, dizziness, ipsilateral pupil dilation, and an altered LOC that may rapidly progress to coma. The patient also exhibits positive Kernig's and Brudzinski's signs, photophobia, blurred vision and, possibly, a fever. Focal signs and symptoms (such as hemiparesis, hemiplegia, sensory or vision disturbances, and aphasia) and signs of elevated ICP (such as bradycardia and increased blood pressure) may also occur.

Subdural hematoma.Typically associated with head trauma, acute and chronic subdural hematomas may cause a headache and decreased LOC. With acute subdural hematoma, head trauma also produces drowsiness, confusion, and agitation that may progress to coma. Later findings include signs of increased ICP and focal neurologic deficits such as hemiparesis.

Chronic subdural hematoma produces a dull, pounding headache that fluctuates in severity and is located over the hematoma. Weeks or months after the initial head trauma, the patient may experience giddiness, personality changes, confusion, seizures, and a progressively worsening LOC. Late signs may include unilateral pupil dilation, sluggish pupil reaction to light, and ptosis.

Tularemia.Signs and symptoms following inhalation of the bacterium Francisella tularensis include an abrupt onset of a headache, a fever, chills, generalized myalgia, a nonproductive cough, dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, and empyema.

Typhus.Initial symptoms of typhus include a headache, myalgia, arthralgia, and malaise followed by an abrupt onset of chills, a fever, nausea, and vomiting. A maculopapular rash may be present in some cases.

West Nile encephalitis.Signs and symptoms of West Nile encephalitis include a fever, a headache, and body aches, commonly with a skin rash and swollen lymph glands. More severe infection is marked by a high fever, a headache, neck stiffness, stupor, disorientation, coma, tremors, occasional seizures, paralysis and, rarely, death.

Other causes

Diagnostic tests.A lumbar puncture, myelogram, or epidural or spinal procedure may produce a throbbing frontal headache that worsens on standing.

Drugs.Many drugs can cause headaches. For example, indomethacin produces headaches—usually in the morning—in many patients. Vasodilators and drugs with a vasodilating effect, such as nitrates, typically cause a throbbing headache. Headaches may also follow withdrawal from vasopressors, such as caffeine, ergotamine, and sympathomimetics.

Traction.Cervical traction with pins commonly causes a headache, which may be generalized or localized to pin insertion sites.

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Migraine as a complication of other conditions:

Other conditions that might have Migraine as a complication may, potentially, be an underlying cause of Migraine. Our database lists the following as having Migraine as a complication of that condition:

• Antiphospholipid syndrome
• Pregnancy

Migraine as a symptom:

Conditions listing Migraine as a symptom may also be potential underlying causes of Migraine. Our database lists the following as having Migraine as a symptom of that condition:

• Allergic tension-fatigue syndrome
• Aortic dilatation- joint hypermobility- arterial tortuosity
• Cadasil
• Centrotemporal epilepsy
• Episodic ataxia, type 2
• Episodic ataxia, type 6
• Hereditary vascular retinopathie - Raynaud phenomenon - migraine
• Inheritable disorders of connective tissue
• MELAS
• Parry Romberg Syndrome
• Sensory ataxic neuropathy, dysarthria, and ophthalmoparesis

Medications or substances causing Migraine:

The following drugs, medications, substances or toxins are some of the possible causes of Migraine as a symptom. This list is incomplete and various other drugs or substances may cause your symptoms. Always advise your doctor of any medications or treatments you are using, including prescription, over-the-counter, supplements, herbal or alternative treatments.

• Birth control pills - some women report more migraines when taking contraceptive pills; but a small number report fewer.
• Tibolone
• Livial
• Tegaserod
• Zelnorm

See full list of 147 medications causing Migraine

Drug interactions causing Migraine:

When combined, certain drugs, medications, substances or toxins may react causing Migraine as a symptom.

The list below is incomplete and various other drugs or substances may cause your symptoms. Always advise your doctor of any medications or treatments you are using, including prescription, over-the-counter, supplements, herbal or alternative treatments.

• Propranolol and Ergotamine interaction
• Birth Control Pill and Vitamin C interaction
• Sumatriptan and St. John's Wort interaction
• Imitrex and St. John's Wort interaction
• Imitrex Nasal Spray and St. John's Wort interaction

See full list of 11 drug interactions causing Migraine

What causes Migraine?

Article excerpts about the causes of Migraine:

Headache - Hope Through Research: NINDS (Excerpt)

Research scientists are unclear about the precise cause of migraine headaches. There seems to be general agreement, however, that a key element is blood flow changes in the brain. People who get migraine headaches appear to have blood vessels that overreact to various triggers.

Scientists have devised one theory of migraine which explains these blood flow changes and also certain biochemical changes that may be involved in the headache process. According to this theory, the nervous system responds to a trigger such as stress by causing a spasm of the nerve-rich arteries at the base of the brain. The spasm closes down or constricts several arteries supplying blood to the brain, including the scalp artery and the carotid or neck arteries.

As these arteries constrict, the flow of blood to the brain is reduced. At the same time, blood-clotting particles called platelets clump together-a process which is believed to release a chemical called serotonin. Serotonin acts as a powerful constrictor of arteries, further reducing the blood supply to the brain.

Reduced blood flow decreases the brain's supply of oxygen. Symptoms signaling a headache, such as distorted vision or speech, may then result, similar to symptoms of stroke.

Reacting to the reduced oxygen supply, certain arteries within the brain open wider to meet the brain's energy needs. This widening or dilation spreads, finally affecting the neck and scalp arteries. The dilation of these arteries triggers the release of pain-producing substances called prostaglandins from various tissues and blood cells. Chemicals which cause inflammation and swelling, and substances which increase sensitivity to pain, are also released. The circulation of these chemicals and the dilation of the scalp arteries stimulate the pain-sensitive nociceptors. The result, according to this theory: a throbbing pain in the head. (Source: excerpt from Headache - Hope Through Research: NINDS)

Headache - Hope Through Research: NINDS (Excerpt)

The relationship between female hormones and migraine is still unclear. Women may have "menstrual migraine"—headaches around the time of their menstrual period—which may disappear during pregnancy. Other women develop migraine for the first time when they are pregnant. Some are first affected after menopause.

The effect of oral contraceptives on headaches is perplexing. Scientists report that some women with migraine who take birth control pills experience more frequent and severe attacks. However, a small percentage of women have fewer and less severe migraine headaches when they take birth control pills. And normal women who do not suffer from headaches may develop migraines as a side effect when they use oral contraceptives. Investigators around the world are studying hormonal changes in women with migraine in the hope of identifying the specific ways these naturally occurring chemicals cause headaches. (Source: excerpt from Headache - Hope Through Research: NINDS)

Migraine Update: NINDS (Excerpt)

For many years, scientists believed that migraines were linked to the dilation and constriction of blood vessels in the head. Investigators now believe that migraine is caused by inherited abnormalities in certain cell populations in the brain. Using new imaging technologies, scientists can see changes in the brain during migraine attacks. Scientists believe that there is a migraine pain center located in the brainstem, a region at the base of the brain. As neurons fire, surrounding blood vessels dilate and become inflamed, causing the characteristic pain of a migraine. In order to keep this process in check, prompt treatment is of the essence. (Source: excerpt from Migraine Update: NINDS)

Migraine Update: NINDS (Excerpt)

Though the causes are not precisely known, it is clear that migraine is a genetic disorder. For some forms of migraine, specific abnormal genes have been identified. People with migraine have an enduring predisposition to attacks triggered by a range of factors. (Source: excerpt from Migraine Update: NINDS)

What triggers Migraine?

The following conditions are listed as possible triggers for Migraine:

• Lack of sleep
• Lack of food
• Pregnancy
• Fatigue
• Menstruation
• Glaring lights
• Flickering lights
• Strobe lights
• Relaxation after a period of stress - can trigger a "weekend migraine"
• Television
• Video screens
• Weather changes
• Certain foods
• Yogurt
• Nuts
• Lima beans
• Cheese
• Chocolate
• Alcoholic drinks
• Low blood sugar
• Female hormonal irregularities
• Anxiety
• Fatigue
• Stress

Medical news summaries relating to Migraine:

The following medical news items are relevant to causes of Migraine:

• Gene presence determines migraine susceptibility
• Headache medications not very effective on migraines
• Lupus can be difficult to diagnose because of it’s multitude of symptoms
• Magnetic pulse therapy may help depression sufferers where drugs fail
• Migraine sufferers face increased stroke risk
• Migraines more than just a headache
• Novel migraine cure devised by dentist
• Obesity is associated with an increased risk of many conditions

Related information on causes of Migraine:

As with all medical conditions, there may be many causal factors. Further relevant information on causes of Migraine may be found in:

• Risk factors for Migraine
• Medications that may cause Migraine
• Genetics of Migraine
• Hidden causes of Migraine