ELDER TIP As a person ages, his bladder muscles weaken, which may result in incomplete bladder emptying and chronic urine retention — factors that predispose the older person to bladder infections.
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Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005
Neurogenic bladder:
Causes
(Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))
At one time, neurogenic bladder was thought to result primarily from spinal cord injury; now, it appears to stem from a host of underlying conditions:
❑ cerebral disorders, such as stroke, brain tumor (meningioma and glioma), Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, dementia, and incontinence caused by aging
❑ spinal cord disease or trauma, such as herniated vertebral disks, spina bifida, myelomeningocele, spinal stenosis (causing cord compression) or arachnoiditis (causing adhesions between the membranes covering the cord), cervical spondylosis, myelopathies from hereditary or nutritional deficiencies and, rarely, tabes dorsalis
❑ disorders of peripheral innervation, including autonomic neuropathies resulting from endocrine disturbances such as diabetes mellitus (most common)
❑ metabolic disturbances, such as hypothyroidism, porphyria, or uremia (infrequent)
❑ acute infectious diseases such as transverse myelitis
❑ heavy metal toxicity
❑ chronic alcoholism
❑ collagen diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus
❑ vascular diseases such as atherosclerosis
❑ distant effects of cancer such as primary oat cell carcinoma of the lung
❑ herpes zoster
❑ sacral agenesis.
An upper motor neuron lesion (above S2 to S4) causes spastic neurogenic bladder, with spontaneous contractions of detrusor muscles, elevated intravesical voiding pressure, bladder wall hypertrophy with trabeculation, and urinary sphincter spasms. A lower motor neuron lesion (below S2 to S4) causes flaccid neurogenic bladder, with decreased intravesical pressure, increased bladder capacity and large residual urine retention, and poor detrusor contraction.
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005
Neurogenic arthropathy:
Causes
(Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition))
Neurogenic arthropathy is most common in men older than 40 years. In adults, the most common cause of neurogenic arthropathy is diabetes mellitus. Other causes include tabes dorsalis (especially among patients age 40 to 60), syringomyelia (progresses to neurogenic arthropathy in about 25% of patients),myelopathy of pernicious anemia, spinal cord trauma, paraplegia, hereditary sensory neuropathy, and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Amyloidosis, peripheral nerve injury, myelomeningocele (in children), leprosy, and alcoholism may cause neurogenic arthropathy, but only in rare occurrences.
Frequent intra-articular injection of corticosteroids has also been linked to neurogenic arthropathy. The analgesic effect of the corticosteroids may mask symptoms and allow continuous stress to accelerate joint destruction.
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Professional Guide to Diseases (Eighth Edition), 2005
Urethral discharge:
Medical causes
(Professional Guide to Signs & Symptoms (Fifth Edition))
Prostatitis
Acute prostatitis is characterized by a purulent urethral discharge. Initial signs and symptoms include sudden fever, chills, low back pain, perineal fullness, myalgia, and arthralgia. Urination becomes increasingly frequent and urgent, and the urine may appear cloudy. Dysuria, nocturia, and some degree of urinary obstruction may also occur. The prostate may be tense, boggy, tender, and warm. Prostate massage to obtain prostatic fluid is contraindicated.
Chronic prostatitis commonly produces no symptoms, but it may produce a persistent urethral discharge that’s thin, milky or clear, and sometimes sticky. The discharge appears at the meatus after a long interval between voidings—for example, in the morning. Associated effects include a dull ache in the prostate or rectum, sexual dysfunction such as ejaculatory pain, and urinary disturbances, such as frequency, urgency, and dysuria.
Reiter’s syndrome
In this self-limiting syndrome that usually affects males, a urethral discharge and other signs of acute urethritis occur 1 to 2 weeks after sexual contact. Asymmetrical arthritis, conjunctivitis of one or both eyes, and ulcerations on the oral mucosa, glans penis, palms, and soles may also occur.
Urethral neoplasm
This rare cancer is sometimes heralded by a painless urethral discharge that’s initially opaque and gray and later yellowish and blood-tinged. Dysuria progresses to anuria as the urethra becomes blocked.
Urethritis
This inflammatory disorder, which is often sexually transmitted (as in gonorrhea), commonly produces a scant or profuse urethral discharge that’s either thin and clear, mucoid, or thick and purulent. Other effects include urinary hesitancy, urgency, and frequency; dysuria; and itching and burning around the meatus.
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Professional Guide to Signs & Symptoms (Fifth Edition), 2006
Urinary incontinence:
Medical causes
(Professional Guide to Signs & Symptoms (Fifth Edition))
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)
Overflow incontinence is common in this disorder as a result of urethral obstruction and urine retention. BPH begins with a group of signs and symptoms known as prostatism: reduced caliber and force of the urine stream, urinary hesitancy, and a feeling of incomplete voiding. As the obstruction increases, the patient may develop urinary frequency, nocturia and, possibly, hematuria. Examination reveals bladder distention and an enlarged prostate.
Bladder calculus
Overflow incontinence may occur if the calculus lodges in the bladder neck. Associated findings vary but may include those of an irritable bladder: urinary frequency and urgency, dysuria, hematuria, and suprapubic pain from bladder spasms. Pelvic pain may be referred to the tip of the penis, vulva, low back, or heel and may be exacerbated by movement.
Bladder cancer
Urge incontinence and hematuria are common findings in bladder cancer; obstruction by a tumor may produce overflow incontinence. The early stages can be asymptomatic. Other urinary signs and symptoms include frequency, dysuria, nocturia, dribbling, and suprapubic pain from bladder spasms after voiding. A mass may be palpable on bimanual examination.
Diabetic neuropathy
Autonomic neuropathy may cause painless bladder distention with overflow incontinence. Related findings include episodic constipation or diarrhea (which is commonly nocturnal), impotence and retrograde ejaculation, orthostatic hypotension, syncope, and dysphagia.
Guillain-Barré syndrome
Urinary incontinence may occur early in this disorder as a result of peripheral and autonomic nerve dysfunction. The cardinal sign is progressive, profound muscle weakness, which typically starts in the legs and extends to the arms and facial nerves within 24 to 72 hours. Associated findings include paresthesia, dysarthria, nasal speech, dysphagia, orthostatic hypotension, tachycardia, fecal incontinence, diaphoresis, drooling, and pain in the shoulders, thighs, or lumbar region.
Multiple sclerosis (MS)
Urinary incontinence, urgency, and frequency are common urologic findings in MS. Visual problems and sensory impairment are usually the first symptoms. Other findings include constipation, muscle weakness, paralysis, spasticity, hyperreflexia, intention tremor, ataxic gait, dysarthria, impotence, and emotional lability.
Prostate cancer
Urinary incontinence usually occurs only in the advanced stages of prostate cancer. Urinary frequency and hesitancy, nocturia, dysuria, bladder distention, perineal pain, constipation, and a hard, irregularly shaped, nodular prostate are other common late findings.
Prostatitis (chronic)
Urinary incontinence may occur as a result of urethral obstruction from an enlarged prostate. Other findings include urinary frequency and urgency, dysuria, hematuria, bladder distention, a persistent urethral discharge, dull perineal pain that may radiate to other areas, ejaculatory pain, and decreased libido.
Spinal cord injury
Complete cord transection above the sacral level causes flaccid paralysis of the bladder. Overflow incontinence follows rapid bladder distention. Other findings include paraplegia, sexual dysfunction, sensory loss, muscle atrophy, anhidrosis, and loss of reflexes distal to the injury.
Stroke
Urinary incontinence may be transient or permanent in a stroke patient. Associated findings reflect the site and extent of the lesion and may include impaired mentation, emotional lability, behavioral changes, altered level of consciousness, and seizures. Sensorimotor effects may include contralateral hemiplegia, dysarthria, dysphagia, ataxia, apraxia, agnosia, aphasia, and unilateral sensory loss. Headache, vomiting, visual deficits, and decreased visual acuity may also occur.
Urethral stricture
Partial obstruction of the lower urinary tract due to trauma or infection produces urinary hesitancy, tenesmus, and decreased force and caliber of the urine stream. Urinary frequency and urgency, nocturia, and eventually overflow incontinence may also occur. As the obstruction increases, urine extravasation may lead to formation of urinomas and urosepsis.
UTI
Besides incontinence, a UTI may produce urinary urgency, dysuria, hematuria, cloudy urine and, in males, a urethral discharge. Bladder spasms or a feeling of warmth during urination may occur.
Other causes
Surgery
Urinary incontinence may occur after prostatectomy as a result of urethral sphincter damage.
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Professional Guide to Signs & Symptoms (Fifth Edition), 2006
Urinary Incontinence:
Differential Overview
(Field Guide to Bedside Diagnosis)
❑ Cystitis
❑ Benign prostatic hypertrophy
❑ Pelvic floor relaxation
❑ Drugs
❑ Prostatitis
❑ Diabetes
❑ Cough
❑ Multiple sclerosis
❑ Spinal cord compression
❑ Decreased cortical inhibition
❑ Vesicovaginal fistula
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Field Guide to Bedside Diagnosis, 2007
Bladder cancer:
Causes
(Handbook of Diseases)
Certain environmental carcinogens — such as 2-naphthylamine, benzidine, tobacco, and nitrates — predispose people to transitional cell tumors. Thus, workers in certain industries (rubber workers, weavers, leather finishers, aniline dye workers, hairdressers, petroleum workers, and spray painters) are at high risk for such tumors. The period between exposure to the carcinogen and development of symptoms is about 18 years.
Squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder is most common in geographic areas where schistosomiasis is endemic. It’s also associated with chronic bladder irritation and infection (for example, from kidney stones, indwelling urinary catheters, and cystitis caused by cyclophosphamide).
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Handbook of Diseases, 2003
Urinary tract infection, lower:
Causes
(Handbook of Diseases)
Most lower UTIs result from ascending infection by a single gram-negative enteric bacterium, such as Escherichia coli, Klebsiella, Proteus, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas, or Serratia. However, in a patient with neurogenic bladder, an indwelling urinary catheter, or a fistula between the intestine and bladder, lower UTI may result from simultaneous infection with multiple pathogens.
Infection may result from a breakdown in local defense mechanisms in the bladder that allow bacteria to invade the bladder mucosa and multiply. These bacteria cannot be readily eliminated by normal micturition.
The risk of cystitis is higher when the bladder or urethra becomes blocked and urine flow stops. It can occur when instruments are inserted into the urinary tract during procedures such as catheterization or cystoscopy. Other risks include pregnancy, diabetes, and a history of analgesic or reflux nephropathy. The elderly are at increased risk for developing UTIs due to incomplete emptying of the bladder; this is associated with conditions such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), prostatitis, and urethral strictures. Also, lack of adequate fluids, bowel incontinence, immobility or decreased mobility, indwelling urinary catheters, and placement in a nursing home all place the person at risk for developing an infection.
Bacterial flare-up
During treatment, bacterial flare-up is generally caused by the pathogenic organism’s resistance to the prescribed antimicrobial therapy. The presence of even a small number (less than 10,000/ml) of bacteria in a midstream urine sample obtained during treatment casts doubt on the treatment’s effectiveness.
Recurrent UTI
In 99% of patients, recurrent lower UTI results from reinfection by the same organism or from some new pathogen; in the remaining 1%, recurrence reflects persistent infection, usually from renal calculi, chronic bacterial prostatitis, or a structural anomaly that may become a source of infection.
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Handbook of Diseases, 2003
Neurogenic bladder:
Causes
(Handbook of Diseases)
At one time, neurogenic bladder was thought to result primarily from spinal cord injury; now, it appears to stem from a host of underlying conditions:
❑ cerebral disorders, such as cerebrovascular accident, brain tumor (meningioma and glioma), Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, and dementia
❑ spinal cord disease or trauma, such as spinal stenosis (causing cord compression) or arachnoiditis (causing adhesions between the membranes covering the cord), cervical spondylosis, myelopathies from hereditary or nutritional deficiencies and, rarely, tabes dorsalis
❑ disorders of peripheral innervation, including autonomic neuropathies resulting from endocrine disturbances such as diabetes mellitus (most common)
❑ metabolic disturbances, such as hypothyroidism, porphyria, or uremia (infrequent)
❑ acute infectious diseases such as Guillain-Barré syndrome
❑ heavy metal toxicity
❑ chronic alcoholism
❑ collagen diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus
❑ vascular diseases such as atherosclerosis
❑ distant effects of cancer such as primary oat cell carcinoma of the lung
❑ herpes zoster
❑ sacral agenesis.
An upper motor neuron lesion (above S2 to S4) causes spastic neurogenic bladder, with spontaneous contractions of the detrusor muscles, elevated intravesical voiding pressure, bladder wall hypertrophy with trabeculation, and urinary sphincter spasms.
A lower motor neuron lesion (below S2 to S4) causes flaccid neurogenic bladder, with decreased intravesical pressure, increased bladder capacity and large residual urine retention, and poor detrusor contraction.
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Handbook of Diseases, 2003
Neurogenic arthropathy:
Causes
(Handbook of Diseases)
In adults, the most common cause of neurogenic arthropathy is diabetes mellitus. Other causes include tabes dorsalis (especially among patients ages 40 to 60), syringomyelia (which progresses to neurogenic arthropathy in about 25% of patients), myelopathy of pernicious anemia, spinal cord trauma, paraplegia, hereditary sensory neuropathy, and Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease. Rarely, amyloidosis, peripheral nerve injury, myelomeningocele (in children), leprosy, or alcoholism causes neurogenic arthropathy.
Frequent intra-articular injections of a corticosteroid have also been linked to neurogenic arthropathy. The analgesic effect of the corticosteroid may mask symptoms and allow continuous damaging stress to accelerate joint destruction.
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Handbook of Diseases, 2003
Urethral discharge:
Medical causes
(Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses)
Prostatitis
Acute prostatitis is characterized by purulent urethral discharge. Initial signs and symptoms include sudden fever, chills, low back pain, myalgia, perineal fullness, and arthralgia. Urination becomes increasingly frequent and urgent, and the urine may appear cloudy. Dysuria, nocturia, and some degree of urinary obstruction may also occur. The prostate may be tense, boggy, tender, and warm.
Although chronic prostatitis commonly produces no symptoms, it may produce a persistent urethral discharge that’s thin, milky, or clear and sometimes sticky. The discharge appears at the meatus after a long interval between voidings, as in the morning. Associated effects include a dull aching in the prostate or rectum, sexual dysfunction such as ejaculatory pain, and urinary disturbances such as frequency, urgency, and dysuria.
Reiter’s syndrome
Reiter’s syndrome is a self-limiting syndrome that usually affects males. Urethral discharge and other signs of acute urethritis occur 1 to 2 weeks after sexual contact. Asymmetrical arthritis, conjunctivitis of one or both eyes, and ulcerations on the oral mucosa, glans penis, palms, and soles may also occur.
Urethritis
Urethritis, which is commonly sexually transmitted (as in gonorrhea), typically produces scant or profuse urethral discharge that’s either thin and clear, mucoid, or thick and purulent. Other effects include urinary hesitancy, urgency, and frequency; dysuria; and itching and burning around the meatus.
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses, 2007
Urinary incontinence:
Medical causes
(Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses)
Benign prostatic hyperplasia
Overflow incontinence is common with benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) as a result of urethral obstruction and urine retention. The disorder begins with a group of signs and symptoms known as prostatism: reduced caliber and force of urine stream, urinary hesitancy, and a feeling of incomplete voiding. As obstruction increases, urination becomes more frequent, with nocturia and, possibly, hematuria. Examination reveals bladder distention and an enlarged prostate.
Bladder calculus
Overflow incontinence may occur if the stone lodges in the bladder neck. Associated findings vary but may include those of an irritable bladder: urinary frequency and urgency, dysuria, hematuria, and suprapubic pain from bladder spasms. Pelvic pain and pain referred to the tip of the penis, vulva, low back, or heel may occur. Pain may be exacerbated by movement.
Bladder cancer
With bladder cancer, the patient commonly presents with urge incontinence and hematuria; obstruction by a tumor may produce overflow incontinence. Symptoms may be absent during the early stages. Other urinary signs and symptoms include frequency, dysuria, nocturia, dribbling, and suprapubic pain from bladder spasms after voiding. A mass may be palpable on bimanual examination.
Diabetic neuropathy
Diabetic neuropathy may cause painless bladder distention with overflow incontinence. Related findings include episodic constipation or diarrhea (which is commonly nocturnal), impotence and retrograde ejaculation, orthostatic hypotension, syncope, and dysphagia.
Guillain-Barré syndrome
Urinary incontinence may occur early in Guillain-Barré syndrome as a result of peripheral and autonomic nerve dysfunction. The most prominent sign is progressive, profound muscle weakness, which typically starts in the legs and extends to the arms and facial nerves within 24 to 72 hours. Associated findings include paresthesia; dysarthria; nasal speech; dysphagia; orthostatic hypotension; fecal incontinence; diaphoresis; drooling; pain in the shoulders, thighs, or lumbar region; and tachycardia.
Multiple sclerosis
Urinary incontinence, urgency, and frequency are common urologic findings in multiple sclerosis. In most patients, vision problems and sensory impairment occur early. Other findings include constipation, muscle weakness, paralysis, spasticity, hyperreflexia, intention tremor, ataxic gait, dysarthria, impotence, and emotional lability.
Prostate cancer
Urinary incontinence usually appears only in the advanced stages of prostate cancer. Urinary frequency and hesitancy, nocturia, dysuria, bladder distention, perineal pain, constipation, and a hard, irregularly shaped, nodular prostate are other common late findings.
Prostatitis (chronic)
Urinary incontinence may occur as a result of urethral obstruction from an enlarged prostate. Other findings include urinary frequency and urgency, dysuria, hematuria, bladder distention, persistent urethral discharge, dull perineal pain that may radiate, ejaculatory pain, and decreased libido.
Spinal cord injury
Complete spinal cord transection above the sacral level causes flaccid paralysis of the bladder. Overflow incontinence follows rapid bladder distention. Other findings include paraplegia, sexual dysfunction, sensory loss, muscle atrophy, anhidrosis, and loss of reflexes distal to the injury.
Stroke
Urinary incontinence may be transient or permanent in stroke patients. Associated findings reflect the site and extent of the lesion and may include impaired mentation, emotional lability, behavioral changes, altered level of consciousness, and seizures. Headache, vomiting, visual deficits, and decreased visual acuity are possible. Sensorimotor effects include contralateral hemiplegia, dysarthria, dysphagia, ataxia, apraxia, agnosia, aphasia, and unilateral sensory loss.
Urethral stricture
Eventually, overflow incontinence may occur with urethral stricture. As obstruction increases, urine extravasation may lead to formation of urinomas and urosepsis.
Urinary tract infection
Besides incontinence, a UTI may produce urinary urgency, dysuria, hematuria, cloudy urine and, in males, urethral discharge. Bladder spasms or a feeling of warmth during urination may occur.
Other causes
Surgery
Urinary incontinence may occur after prostatectomy as a result of urethral sphincter damage.
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Signs & Symptoms: A 2-in-1 Reference for Nurses, 2007
Urinary Incontinence:
Principal Causes of Urinary Incontinence
(The Diagnostic Approach to Symptoms and Signs in Pediatrics)
- Maturationaldelay
- Stress-related causes
- Urinary tract disorders
- Urinarytract infection
- Dysfunctional voiding disorders
- Lower urinary tract obstruction
- Ectopic ureter in girls
- Neurologic disorders
- Mentalretardation
- Neurogenic bladder
- Abdominal or pelvic mass
- Polyuria
- Primary psychologic disturbance
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: The Diagnostic Approach to Symptoms and Signs in Pediatrics, 2006
Urethral discharge:
Medical causes
(Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms)
Prostatitis.Acute prostatitis is characterized by purulent urethral discharge. Initial signs and symptoms include sudden fever, chills, lower back pain, myalgia, perineal fullness, and arthralgia. Urination becomes increasingly frequent and urgent, and the urine may appear cloudy. Dysuria, nocturia, and some degree of urinary obstruction may also occur. The prostate may be tense, boggy, tender, and warm. Prostate massage to obtain prostatic fluid is contraindicated.
Chronic prostatitis, although commonly producing no symptoms, may produce a persistent urethral discharge that's thin, milky, or clear and sometimes sticky. The discharge appears at the meatus after a long interval between voidings, as in the morning. Associated effects include a dull aching in the prostate or rectum, sexual dysfunction such as ejaculatory pain, and urinary disturbances such as frequency, urgency, and dysuria.
Reiter's syndrome.In Reiter's syndrome (also known as reactive arthritis), urethral discharge and other signs of acute urethritis occur 1 to 2 weeks after sexual contact. Asymmetrical arthritis, conjunctivitis of one or both eyes, and ulcerations on the oral mucosa, glans penis, palms, and soles may also occur with Reiter's syndrome.
Urethritis.Urethritis commonly produces scant or profuse urethral discharge that's either thin and clear, mucoid, or thick and purulent. Other effects include urinary hesitancy, urgency, and frequency; dysuria; and itching and burning around the meatus.
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms, 2007
Urinary incontinence:
Medical causes
(Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms)
Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).Overflow incontinence is common with BPH as a result of urethral obstruction and urine retention. BPH begins with a group of signs and symptoms known as prostatism: reduced caliber and force of urine stream, urinary hesitancy, and a feeling of incomplete voiding. As obstruction increases, urination becomes more frequent, with nocturia and, possibly, hematuria. Examination reveals bladder distention and an enlarged prostate.
Bladder cancer.With bladder cancer, the patient commonly presents with urge incontinence and hematuria; obstruction by a tumor may produce overflow incontinence. The early stages may not produce symptoms. Other urinary signs and symptoms include frequency, dysuria, nocturia, dribbling, and suprapubic pain from bladder spasms after voiding. A mass may be palpable on bimanual examination.
Diabetic neuropathy.Autonomic neuropathy may cause painless bladder distention with overflow incontinence. Related findings include episodic constipation or diarrhea (which is commonly nocturnal), impotence and retrograde ejaculation, orthostatic hypotension, syncope, and dysphagia.
Multiple sclerosis (MS).Urinary incontinence, urgency, and frequency are common urologic findings in MS. In most patients, vision problems and sensory impairment occur early. Other findings include constipation, muscle weakness, paralysis, spasticity, hyperreflexia, intention tremor, ataxic gait, dysarthria, impotence, and emotional lability.
Prostate cancer.Urinary incontinence usually appears only in the advanced stages of prostate cancer. Urinary frequency and hesitancy, nocturia, dysuria, bladder distention, perineal pain, constipation, and a hard, irregularly shaped, nodular prostate are other common late findings.
Prostatitis (chronic).Urinary incontinence may occur as a result of urethral obstruction from an enlarged prostate. Other findings include urinary frequency and urgency, dysuria, hematuria, bladder distention, persistent urethral discharge, dull perineal pain that may radiate, ejaculatory pain, and decreased libido.
Spinal cord injury.Complete cord transection above the sacral level causes flaccid paralysis of the bladder. Overflow incontinence follows rapid bladder distention. Other findings include paraplegia, sexual dysfunction, sensory loss, muscle atrophy, anhidrosis, and loss of reflexes distal to the injury.
Stroke.With a stroke, urinary incontinence may be transient or permanent. Associated findings reflect the site and extent of the lesion and may include impaired mentation, emotional lability, behavioral changes, altered level of consciousness, and seizures. Headache, vomiting, visual deficits, and decreased visual acuity are possible. Sensorimotor effects include contralateral hemiplegia, dysarthria, dysphagia, ataxia, apraxia, agnosia, aphasia, and unilateral sensory loss.
Urethral stricture.Eventually, overflow incontinence may occur with a urethral stricture. As obstruction increases, urine extravasation may lead to formation of urinomas and urosepsis.
UTI.Besides incontinence, a UTI may produce urinary urgency, dysuria, hematuria, cloudy urine and, in males, urethral discharge. Bladder spasms or a feeling of warmth during urination may occur.
Other causes
Surgery.Urinary incontinence may occur after prostatectomy as a result of urethral sphincter damage.
» READ BOOK EXCERPT ONLINE »
Source: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms, 2007
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