Hematochezia [Rectal bleeding]
Hematochezia [Rectal bleeding]: Excerpt from Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms
The passage of bloody stools, also known as hematochezia, usually indicates—and may be the first sign of—GI bleeding below the ligament of Treitz. However, this sign—usually preceded by hematemesis—may also accompany rapid hemorrhage of 1 L or more from the upper GI tract.
Hematochezia ranges from formed, blood-streaked stools to liquid, bloody stools that may be bright red, dark mahogany, or maroon. This sign usually develops abruptly and is heralded by abdominal pain.
Although hematochezia is commonly associated with GI disorders, it may also result from a coagulation disorder, exposure to toxins, or certain diagnostic tests. Always a significant sign, hematochezia may precipitate life-threatening hypovolemia.
Action stat!
If the patient has severe hematochezia, check his vital signs. If you detect signs of shock, such as hypotension and tachycardia, place the patient in a supine position and elevate his feet 20 to 30 degrees. Prepare to administer oxygen, and insert a large-bore I.V. catheter for emergency fluid replacement. Next, obtain a blood sample for typing and crossmatching, hemoglobin level, and hematocrit. Insert a nasogastric tube. Iced lavage may be indicated to control bleeding. Endoscopy may be necessary to detect the source of bleeding.
History and physical examination
If hematochezia isn't immediately life-threatening, ask the patient to fully describe the amount, color, and consistency of his bloody stools. (If possible, also inspect and characterize the stools yourself.) How long have the stools been bloody? Do they always look the same, or does the amount of blood seem to vary? Ask about associated signs and symptoms.
Next, explore the patient's medical history, focusing on GI and coagulation disorders. Ask about the use of GI irritants, such as alcohol, aspirin, and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
Begin the physical examination by checking for orthostatic hypotension, an early sign of shock. Take the patient's blood pressure and pulse while he's lying down, sitting, and standing. If systolic pressure decreases by 10 mm Hg or more or if the pulse rate increases by 10 beats/minute or more when he changes position, suspect volume depletion and impending shock.
Examine the skin for petechiae or spider angiomas. Palpate the abdomen for tenderness, pain, or masses. Also note lymphadenopathy. Finally, a digital rectal examination must be done to rule out rectal masses or hemorrhoids.
Medical causes
Anal fissure.Slight hematochezia characterizes anal fissure; blood may streak the stools or appear on toilet tissue. Accompanying hematochezia is severe rectal pain that may make the patient reluctant to defecate, thereby causing constipation.
Angiodysplastic lesions.Most common in elderly patients, these arteriovenous lesions of the ascending colon typically cause chronic, bright red rectal bleeding. Occasionally, this painless hematochezia may result in life-threatening blood loss and signs of shock, such as tachycardia and hypotension.
Coagulation disorders.Patients with a coagulation disorder (such as thrombocytopenia and disseminated intravascular coagulation) may experience GI bleeding marked by moderate to severe hematochezia. Bleeding may also occur in other body systems, producing such signs as epistaxis and purpura. Associated findings vary with the specific coagulation disorder.
Colitis.Ischemic colitis commonly causes bloody diarrhea, especially in elderly patients. Hematochezia may be slight or massive and is usually accompanied by severe, cramping lower abdominal pain and hypotension. Other effects include abdominal tenderness, distention, and absent bowel sounds. Severe colitis may cause life-threatening hypovolemic shock and peritonitis.
Ulcerative colitis typically causes bloody diarrhea that may also contain mucus. Hematochezia is preceded by mild to severe abdominal cramps and may cause slight to massive blood loss. Associated signs and symptoms include fever, tenesmus, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, hyperactive bowel sounds and, occasionally, tachycardia. Weight loss and weakness occur late.
Colon cancer.Bright red rectal bleeding with or without pain is a telling sign of colon cancer especially in cancer of the left colon.
Usually, a left colon tumor causes early signs of obstruction, such as rectal pressure, bleeding, and intermittent fullness or cramping. As the disease progresses, the patient also develops obstipation, diarrhea or ribbon-shaped stools, and pain, which is typically relieved by the passage of stools or flatus. Stools are grossly bloody.
Early tumor growth in the right colon may cause melena, abdominal aching, pressure, and dull cramps. As the disease progresses, the patient develops weakness and fatigue. Later, he may also experience diarrhea, anorexia, weight loss, anemia, vomiting, an abdominal mass, and signs of obstruction, such as abdominal distention and abnormal bowel sounds.
Colorectal polyps.Colorectal polyps are the most common cause of intermittent hematochezia in adults younger than age 60; however, sometimes such polyps produce no symptoms. When located high in the colon, polyps may cause blood-streaked stools. The stools yield a positive response when tested with guaiac. If the polyps are located closer to the rectum, they may bleed freely.
Diverticulitis.Most common in the elderly patient, diverticulitis can suddenly cause mild to moderate rectal bleeding after the patient feels the urge to defecate. The bleeding may end abruptly or may progress to life-threatening blood loss with signs of shock. Associated signs and symptoms may include left lower quadrant pain that's relieved by defecation, alternating episodes of constipation and diarrhea, anorexia, nausea and vomiting, rebound tenderness, and a distended tympanic abdomen.
Dysentery.Bloody diarrhea is common in infection with Shigella, Amoeba, and Campylobacter, but rare with Salmonella. Abdominal pain or cramps, tenesmus, a fever, and nausea may also occur.
Esophageal varices (ruptured).In esophageal varices, a life-threatening disorder, hematochezia may range from slight rectal oozing to grossly bloody stools and may be accompanied by mild to severe hematemesis or melena. This painless but massive hemorrhage may precipitate signs of shock, such as tachycardia and hypotension. In fact, signs of shock occasionally precede overt signs of bleeding. Typically, the patient has a history of chronic liver disease.
Food poisoning (staphylococcal).The patient may have bloody diarrhea 1 to 6 hours after ingesting food toxins. Accompanying signs and symptoms include severe, cramping abdominal pain; nausea and vomiting; and prostration, all of which last a few hours.
Hemorrhoids.Hematochezia may accompany external hemorrhoids, which typically cause painful defecation, resulting in constipation. Less painful internal hemorrhoids usually produce more chronic bleeding with bowel movements, which may eventually lead to signs of anemia, such as weakness and fatigue.
Leptospirosis.The severe form of leptospirosis—Weil's syndrome—produces hematochezia or melena along with other signs of bleeding, such as epistaxis and hemoptysis. The bleeding is typically preceded by a sudden frontal headache and severe thigh and lumbar myalgia that may be accompanied by cutaneous hyperesthesia. Conjunctival suffusion is indicative. Bleeding is followed by chills, a rapidly rising fever and, perhaps, nausea and vomiting. A fever, a headache, and myalgia usually intensify and persist for weeks. Other findings may include right upper quadrant tenderness, hepatomegaly, and jaundice.
Peptic ulcer.Upper GI bleeding is a common complication in peptic ulcer. The patient may display hematochezia, hematemesis, or melena, depending on the rapidity and amount of bleeding. If the peptic ulcer penetrates an artery or vein, massive bleeding may precipitate signs of shock, such as hypotension and tachycardia. Other findings may include chills, a fever, nausea and vomiting, and signs of dehydration, such as dry mucous membranes, poor skin turgor, and thirst. The patient typically has a history of epigastric pain that's relieved by foods or antacids; he may also have a history of habitually using tobacco, alcohol, or NSAIDs.
Ulcerative proctitis.Ulcerative proctitis typically causes an intense urge to defecate, but the patient passes only bright red blood, pus, or mucus. Other common signs and symptoms include acute constipation and tenesmus.
Other causes
Diagnostic tests.Certain procedures, especially colonoscopy, polypectomy, hemorrhoidectomy, and proctosigmoidoscopy, may cause rectal bleeding. Bowel perforation is rare.
Nursing considerations
▪ Place the patient on bed rest.
▪ Check vital signs frequently, watching for signs of shock, such as hypotension, tachycardia, a weak pulse, and tachypnea.
▪ Monitor the patient's intake and output hourly.
▪ Monitor hemoglobin level and hematocrit.
▪ Administer blood products as ordered.
▪ Provide emotional support because hematochezia may frighten the patient.
▪ Prepare the patient for blood tests and GI procedures, such as endoscopy and GI X-rays.
▪ Visually examine the patient's stools and test them for occult blood.
▪ If necessary, send a stool specimen to the laboratory to check for parasites.
Patient teaching
▪ Explain signs and symptoms that require immediate medical attention.
▪ Teach the patient about ostomy self-care, as appropriate.
▪ Discuss proper bowel elimination habits.
▪ Explain dietary recommendations and restrictions.
▪ Teach the patient about prescribed medications.
Book Source Details
- Book Title: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms
- Author(s): Springhouse
- Year of Publication: 2007
- Copyright Details: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms, Copyright © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
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Copyright notice for book excerpts: Copyright © 2008 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. All rights reserved.
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