Retractions, costal and sternal

A cardinal sign of respiratory distress in infants and children, retractions are visible indentations of the soft tissue covering the chest wall. They may be suprasternal (directly above the sternum and clavicles), intercostal (between the ribs), subcostal (below the lower costal margin of the rib cage), or substernal (just below the xiphoid process). Retractions may be mild or severe, producing barely visible to deep indentations.

Normally, infants and young children use abdominal muscles for breathing, unlike older children and adults, who use the diaphragm. When breathing requires extra effort, accessory muscles assist respiration, especially inspiration. Retractions typically accompany accessory muscle use.

Action stat!

If you detect retractions in a child, check quickly for other signs of respiratory distress, such as cyanosis, tachypnea, tachycardia, and decreased oxygen saturation. Also, prepare the child for suctioning, artificial airway insertion, and oxygen administration.

History and physical examination

If the child's condition permits, ask his parents about his medical history. Was he born prematurely? Was he born with a low birth weight? Was the delivery complicated? Ask about recent signs of an upper respiratory tract infection, such as runny nose, cough, and low-grade fever. How often has the child had respiratory problems during the past year? Does he participate in a day care program or have school-aged siblings? Has he been in contact with anyone who has had a cold, the flu, or other respiratory ailments? Did he ever have respiratory syncytial virus? Did he aspirate food, liquid, or a foreign body? Inquire about a personal or family history of allergies or asthma.

Observe the depth and location of the retractions. Also, note the rate, depth, and quality of respirations. Look for accessory muscle use, nasal flaring during inspiration, or grunting during expiration. If the child has a cough, record its characteristics as well as the color, consistency, amount, and odor of any sputum. Note whether the child appears restless or lethargic. Finally, auscultate the child's lungs to detect abnormal breath sounds. (See Observing retractions, page 540.)

Medical causes

Asthma.Intercostal and suprasternal retractions may accompany an asthma attack. They're preceded by dyspnea, wheezing, a hacking cough, and pallor. Related features include cyanosis or flushing, crackles, rhonchi, diaphoresis, tachycardia, tachypnea, a frightened, anxious expression and, in patients with severe distress, nasal flaring.

Epiglottiditis.Epiglottiditis is a life-threatening bacterial infection that may precipitate severe respiratory distress with suprasternal, substernal, and intercostal retractions; stridor; nasal flaring; cyanosis; and tachycardia. Early features include a sudden onset of a barking cough and high fever, a sore throat, hoarseness, dysphagia, drooling, dyspnea, and restlessness. The child becomes panicky as edema makes breathing difficult. Total airway occlusion may occur in 2 to 5 hours.

Heart failure.Usually linked to a congenital heart defect in children, heart failure may cause intercostal and substernal retractions along with nasal flaring, progressive tachypnea, and—in severe respiratory distress—grunting respirations, edema, and cyanosis. Other findings include a productive cough, crackles, jugular vein distention, tachycardia, right upper quadrant pain, anorexia, and fatigue.

Laryngotracheobronchitis (acute).With laryngotracheobronchitis, substernal and intercostal retractions typically follow a low to moderate fever, runny nose, poor appetite, a barking cough, hoarseness, and inspiratory stridor. Associated signs and symptoms include tachycardia; shallow, rapid respirations; restlessness; irritability; and pale, cyanotic skin.

Pneumonia (bacterial).Pneumonia begins with signs and symptoms of acute infection, such as a high fever and lethargy, which are followed by subcostal and intercostal retractions, nasal flaring, dyspnea, tachypnea, grunting respirations, cyanosis, and a productive cough. Auscultation may reveal diminished breath sounds, scattered crackles, and sibilant rhonchi over the affected lung. GI effects may include vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal distention.

Respiratory distress syndrome.Substernal and subcostal retractions are an early sign of respiratory distress syndrome, a life-threatening syndrome, which affects premature neonates shortly after birth. Associated early signs include tachypnea, tachycardia, and expiratory grunting. As respiratory distress worsens, intercostal and suprasternal retractions typically occur, and apnea or irregular respirations replace grunting. Other effects include nasal flaring, cyanosis, lethargy, and eventual unresponsiveness as well as bradycardia and hypotension. Auscultation may detect crackles over the lung bases on deep inspiration and harsh, diminished breath sounds. Oliguria and peripheral edema may occur.

Nursing considerations

▪ Monitor vital signs frequently.

▪ Keep suction equipment and emergency equipment at the bedside.

▪ If the infant weighs less than 15 lb (6.8 kg), place him in an oxygen hood; if he weighs more, place him in a cool mist tent instead.

▪ Perform chest physical therapy with postural drainage to help mobilize and drain excess lung secretions.

▪ Administer a bronchodilator or steroid, as ordered.

▪ Prepare the child for chest X-rays, cultures, pulmonary function tests, and arterial blood gas analysis.

Patient teaching

▪ Explain the procedures to the child's parents, and have them calm and comfort him.

▪ Explain the disorder and treatment plan.

▪ Teach the patient and his family about medications.

▪ Tell them how to provide a humidified environment.

▪ Stress the importance of ensuring adequate hydration.

Pictures

Book Source Details

• Book Title: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms
• Author(s): Springhouse
• Year of Publication: 2007
• Copyright Details: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms, Copyright © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

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Copyright Details: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms, Copyright © 2008 Williams & Wilkins.

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More About This Book: Title: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms Authors: Springhouse Publisher: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Copyright: 2007 ISBN: 1-58255-668-7

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