Chills [Rigors]

Chills are extreme, involuntary muscle contractions with characteristic paroxysms of violent shivering and teeth chattering. Commonly accompanied by a fever, chills tend to arise suddenly, usually heralding the onset of infection. Certain diseases, such as pneumococcal pneumonia, produce only a single, shaking chill. Other diseases, such as malaria, produce intermittent chills with recurring high fever. Still others produce continuous chills for up to 1 hour, precipitating a high fever. (See Why chills accompany fever, page 134.)

Chills can also result from lymphomas, blood transfusion reactions, and certain drugs. Chills without fever occur as a normal response to exposure to cold.

History and physical examination

Ask the patient when the chills began and whether they're continuous or intermittent. Because fever commonly accompanies or follows chills, take his rectal temperature to obtain a baseline reading. Then check his temperature often to monitor fluctuations and to determine his temperature curve. Typically, a localized infection produces a sudden onset of shaking chills, sweats, and high fever. A systemic infection produces intermittent chills with recurring episodes of high fever or continuous chills that may last up to 1 hour and precipitate a high fever.

Ask about related signs and symptoms, such as headache, dysuria, diarrhea, confusion, abdominal pain, cough, sore throat, or nausea. Does the patient have any known allergies, an infection, or a recent history of an infectious disorder? Find out which medications he's taking and whether a drug has improved or worsened his symptoms. Has he received treatment that may predispose him to an infection (such as chemotherapy)? Ask about recent exposure to farm animals, guinea pigs, hamsters, dogs, and such birds as pigeons, parrots, and parakeets. Also ask about recent insect or animal bites, travel to foreign countries, and contact with persons who have an active infection.

Medical causes

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).With AIDS, the patient usually develops lymphadenopathy and may also experience fatigue, anorexia and weight loss, diarrhea, diaphoresis, skin disorders, and signs of upper respiratory tract infection. Opportunistic infections can cause serious disease in the patient with AIDS.

Anthrax (inhalation).Inhalation anthrax is caused by inhalation of aerosolized spores. Initial signs and symptoms are flulike and include a fever, chills, weakness, a cough, and chest pain. The disease generally occurs in two stages with a period of recovery after the initial signs and symptoms. The second stage develops abruptly with rapid deterioration marked by a fever, dyspnea, stridor, and hypotension generally leading to death within 24 hours. Radiologic findings include mediastinitis and symmetric mediastinal widening.

Cholangitis.Charcot's triad—chills with spiking fever, abdominal pain, and jaundice—characterizes a sudden obstruction of the common bile duct. The patient may have associated pruritus, weakness, and fatigue.

Gram-negative bacteremia.Gram-negative bacteremia causes sudden chills and a fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and prostration.

Hemolytic anemia.With acute hemolytic anemia, fulminating chills occur with a fever and abdominal pain. The patient rapidly develops jaundice and hepatomegaly; he may develop splenomegaly.

Hepatic abscess.Hepatic abscess usually arises abruptly, with chills, a fever, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, anorexia, and severe upper abdominal tenderness and pain that may radiate to the right shoulder.

Infective endocarditis.Infective endocarditis produces the abrupt onset of intermittent, shaking chills with a fever. Petechiae commonly develop. The patient may also have Janeway lesions on his hands and feet and Osler's nodes on his palms and soles. Associated findings include a murmur, hematuria, eye hemorrhage, Roth's spots, and signs of cardiac failure (such as dyspnea and peripheral edema).

Influenza.Initially, influenza causes an abrupt onset of chills, a high fever, malaise, a headache, myalgia, and a nonproductive cough. Some patients may also suddenly develop rhinitis, rhinorrhea, laryngitis, conjunctivitis, hoarseness, and a sore throat. Chills generally subside after the first few days, but an intermittent fever, weakness, and a cough may persist for up to 1 week.

Legionnaires' disease.Within 12 to 48 hours after the onset of Legionnaires' disease, the patient suddenly develops chills and a high fever. Prodromal signs and symptoms characteristically include malaise, a headache, and possibly diarrhea, anorexia, diffuse myalgia, and general weakness. An initially nonproductive cough progresses to a productive cough with mucoid or mucopurulent sputum and possibly hemoptysis. The patient usually also develops nausea and vomiting, confusion, mild temporary amnesia, pleuritic chest pain, dyspnea, tachypnea, crackles, tachycardia, and flushed and mildly diaphoretic skin.

Malaria.The paroxysmal cycle of malaria begins with a period of chills lasting 1 or 2 hours. This is followed by a high fever lasting 3 or 4 hours and then 2 to 4 hours of profuse diaphoresis. Paroxysms occur every 48 to 72 hours when caused by Plasmodium malariae and every 40 to 42 hours when caused by P. vivax or P. ovale. With benign malaria, the paroxysms may be interspersed with periods of well-being. The patient also has a headache, muscle pain and, possibly, hepatosplenomegaly.

Monkeypox.Many individuals infected with the monkeypox virus experience chills. Other common initial symptoms of this rare virus include fever, lymphadenopathy, sore throat, dyspnea, muscle aches, and rash. Although monkeypox occurs primarily in central and western Africa, it was confirmed in the United States in 2003 when several humans contracted the virus from infected pet prairie dogs. There's no treatment for this virus; however, given its similarity to smallpox, the smallpox vaccine is used in certain circumstances to protect individuals against monkeypox.

Pelvic inflammatory disease.Pelvic inflammatory disease causes chills and fever with, typically, lower abdominal pain and tenderness; profuse, purulent vaginal discharge; or abnormal menstrual bleeding. The patient may also develop nausea and vomiting, an abdominal mass, and dysuria.

Plague(Yersinia pestis).Signs and symptoms of the plague include a fever, chills, and swollen, inflamed, and tender lymph nodes near the site of the flea bite. Septicemic plague develops as a fulminant illness generally with the bubonic form. The pneumonic form may be contracted from person-to-person through direct contact via the respiratory system or through biological warfare from aerosolization and inhalation of the organism. The onset is usually sudden with chills, a fever, a headache, and myalgia. Pulmonary signs and symptoms include a productive cough, chest pain, tachypnea, dyspnea, hemoptysis, increasing respiratory distress, and cardiopulmonary insufficiency.

Pneumonia.A single shaking chill usually heralds the sudden onset of pneumococcal pneumonia; other pneumonias characteristically cause intermittent chills. With any type of pneumonia, related findings may include a fever, a productive cough with bloody sputum, pleuritic chest pain, dyspnea, tachypnea, and tachycardia. The patient may be cyanotic and diaphoretic, with bronchial breath sounds and crackles, rhonchi, increased tactile fremitus, and grunting respirations. He may also experience achiness, anorexia, fatigue, and a headache.

Puerperal or postabortal sepsis.Chills and a high fever occur as early as 6 hours or as late as 10 days postpartum or postabortion. The patient may also have a purulent vaginal discharge, an enlarged and tender uterus, abdominal pain, backache and, possibly, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea.

Pyelonephritis.With acute pyelonephritis, the patient develops chills, a high fever, and possibly nausea and vomiting over several hours to days. He generally also has anorexia, fatigue, myalgia, flank pain, costovertebral angle (CVA) tenderness, hematuria or cloudy urine, and urinary frequency, urgency, and burning.

Q fever.Signs and symptoms of Q fever include a fever, chills, a severe headache, malaise, chest pain, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. The fever may last up to 2 weeks. In severe cases, the patient may develop hepatitis or pneumonia.

Renal abscess.Renal abscess initially produces sudden chills and a fever. Later effects include flank pain, CVA tenderness, abdominal muscle spasm, and transient hematuria.

Rocky Mountain spotted fever.Rocky Mountain spotted fever begins with a sudden onset of chills, a fever, malaise, an excruciating headache, and muscle, bone, and joint pain. Typically, the patient's tongue is covered with a thick white coating that gradually turns brown. After 2 to 6 days of fever and occasional chills, a macular or maculopapular rash appears on the hands and feet and then becomes generalized; after a few days, the rash becomes petechial.

Septic arthritis.Chills and fever accompany the characteristic red, swollen, and painful joints caused by septic arthritis.

Septic shock.Initially, septic shock produces chills, a fever and, possibly, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. The patient's skin is typically flushed, warm, and dry; his blood pressure is normal or slightly low; and he has tachycardia and tachypnea. As septic shock progresses, the patient's arms and legs become cool and cyanotic, and he develops oliguria, thirst, anxiety, restlessness, confusion, and hypotension. Later, his skin becomes cold and clammy; his pulse, rapid and thready. He further develops severe hypotension, persistent oliguria or anuria, signs of respiratory failure, and coma.

Sinusitis.With acute sinusitis, chills occur along with a fever, a headache, and pain, tenderness, and swelling over the affected sinuses. Maxillary sinusitis produces pain over the cheeks and upper teeth; ethmoid sinusitis, pain over the eyes; frontal sinusitis, pain over the eyebrows; and sphenoid sinusitis, pain behind the eyes. The primary indicator of sinusitis is nasal discharge, which is commonly bloody for 24 to 48 hours before it gradually becomes purulent.

Snake bite.Most pit viper bites that result in envenomization cause chills, typically with a fever. Other systemic signs and symptoms include sweating, weakness, dizziness, fainting, hypotension, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and thirst. The area around the snake bite may be marked by immediate swelling and tenderness, pain, ecchymoses, petechiae, blebs, bloody discharge, and local necrosis. The patient may have difficulty speaking, blurred vision, and paralysis. He may also show bleeding tendencies and signs of respiratory distress and shock.

Tularemia.Signs and symptoms of tularemia following inhalation of the organism include the abrupt onset of a fever, chills, a headache, generalized myalgia, a nonproductive cough, dyspnea, pleuritic chest pain, and empyema.

Typhus.Initial signs and symptoms of typhus include a headache, myalgia, arthralgia, and malaise followed by an abrupt onset of chills, a fever, nausea, and vomiting. A maculopapular rash may be present in some cases.

Violin spider bite.The violin spider bite produces chills, a fever, malaise, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and joint pain within 24 to 48 hours. The patient may also develop a rash and delirium.

Other causes

Drugs.Amphotericin B is a drug associated with chills. Phenytoin is also a common cause of drug-induced fever that can produce chills. I.V. bleomycin and intermittent administration of an oral antipyretic can also cause chills.

I.V. therapy.Infection at the I.V. insertion site (superficial phlebitis) can cause chills, high fever, and local redness, warmth, induration, and tenderness.

Transfusion reaction.A hemolytic reaction may cause chills during the transfusion or immediately afterward. A nonhemolytic febrile reaction may also cause chills.

Nursing considerations

▪ Check the patient's vital signs often, especially if his chills result from a known or suspected infection.

▪ Be alert for signs of progressive septic shock, such as hypotension, tachycardia, and tachypnea.

▪ Obtain samples of blood, sputum, wound drainage, or urine for culture to determine the causative organism.

▪ Give the appropriate antibiotic.

▪ Prepare the patient for radiographic studies, as required.

▪ Keep the room temperature as even as possible.

▪ Provide adequate hydration and nutrients.

▪ Administer an antipyretic to help control a fever.

Patient teaching

▪ Explain the importance of documenting temperature readings and times to reveal patterns.

▪ Teach him about his diagnosis and treatment, especially about the importance of taking the full course of antibiotics.

▪ Explain the signs and symptoms of a worsening condition and when to seek medical attention.

Pictures

Book Source Details

• Book Title: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms
• Author(s): Springhouse
• Year of Publication: 2007
• Copyright Details: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms, Copyright © 2007 Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Other Book Chapters Related to Chills

Read excerpts from these other book chapters related to Chills:

Copyright Details: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms, Copyright © 2008 Williams & Wilkins.

More About Causes of Chills

• Back to symptom: Chills: Introduction (review 714 causes)
• Next Book Extract About Chills: CHILLS (Differential Diagnosis in Primary Care)
• All Book Extracts: All Online Book Extracts for Chills

More About This Book: Title: Nursing: Interpreting Signs and Symptoms Authors: Springhouse Publisher: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Copyright: 2007 ISBN: 1-58255-668-7

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